Londonhua WIKI - User contributions [en]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-23T11:09:59Z

Crfawcett:

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hampstead Heath, One of London's Oldest Public Green Spaces<ref>London, T. O. (2012, June 20). Hampstead Heath Swimming Ponds. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.timeout.com/london/outdoor/hampstead-heath-swimming-ponds</ref>
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. The most recent course I had taken before being a part of London was Topics in American Social History, which focused on green spaces and their development in Worcester, MA. Inspired by this experience, this project presents London's complex history with greens spaces, with the deliverable component consisting of a informational pamphlet. Coming from a familiarity with the green space landscape of the small city of Worcester, London's long relationship with public green spaces presented a challenge to create a means to present such a rich background.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone covers
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park consisting of over 350 acres land stands as one of London's most famous royal park. While Hyde Park's land has likely been in use for millennia, the history of the land as a park dates back to Henry VII "acquiring" it from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536, as part of his establishment of the Church of England. Once under his authority, Henry VII and his court used the land as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer and similar game. Hyde Park would remain a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access to non-royals. James I made the pivotal decision of establishing Hyde Park as a park for the people with his opening the land to the general public in 1637. Over the years following its establishment as a royal park, Hyde Park has changed in its appearance and well as its use by Londoners. In 1665, Londoners fled to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the pervasive disease in the city. By end of the 17th century, Royalty called for adding artificially lighting along a path frequented by the new king, William III. Lit by 300 oil lamps, King's Road, more famously known as Rotten Row, became the first road in England to be lit at night. The next renovations came in the 1730s with Queen Caroline, wife of George II, pushing for extensive renovations carried out. Of these renovations, the most significant notable was the construction of Hyde Park's Serpentine, the parks massive human-made lake.<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref> Following this, Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV employed Decimus Burton to construct an entrance at Hyde Park Corner. Burton went on to replace the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates, as well. From then on, majority of how Hyde Park appears today is Decimus Burton left it back almost 200 years ago.<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
The following is a pdf of a short pamphlet detailing green spaces change in definition over the last 200 years of English history.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/d/de/How_London_Has_Kept_Green.pdf How London Has Kept Green]
 

=Conclusion=
 
Green space represents a basic human necessity of remain in contact, on some level, with nature. Most American cities take a measured departure from maintaining modern green space as progress and innovation demand more space. London stands out as an example of a European high-density 'compact city' progressive not only it technology as well as public green spaces. London benefits from a long history with green spaces, allowing implementation green space in the evolving cityscape at such a level.
 

=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

File:How London Has Kept Green.pdf

2017-06-23T11:09:30Z

Crfawcett:

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T20:58:46Z

Crfawcett: /* Conclusion */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hampstead Heath, One of London's Oldest Public Green Spaces<ref>London, T. O. (2012, June 20). Hampstead Heath Swimming Ponds. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.timeout.com/london/outdoor/hampstead-heath-swimming-ponds</ref>
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. The most recent course I had taken before being a part of London was Topics in American Social History, which focused on green spaces and their development in Worcester, MA. Inspired by this experience, this project presents London's complex history with greens spaces, with the deliverable component consisting of a informational pamphlet. Coming from a familiarity with the green space landscape of the small city of Worcester, London's long relationship with public green spaces presented a challenge to create a means to present such a rich background.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone covers
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park consisting of over 350 acres land stands as one of London's most famous royal park. While Hyde Park's land has likely been in use for millennia, the history of the land as a park dates back to Henry VII "acquiring" it from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536, as part of his establishment of the Church of England. Once under his authority, Henry VII and his court used the land as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer and similar game. Hyde Park would remain a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access to non-royals. James I made the pivotal decision of establishing Hyde Park as a park for the people with his opening the land to the general public in 1637. Over the years following its establishment as a royal park, Hyde Park has changed in its appearance and well as its use by Londoners. In 1665, Londoners fled to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the pervasive disease in the city. By end of the 17th century, Royalty called for adding artificially lighting along a path frequented by the new king, William III. Lit by 300 oil lamps, King's Road, more famously known as Rotten Row, became the first road in England to be lit at night. The next renovations came in the 1730s with Queen Caroline, wife of George II, pushing for extensive renovations carried out. Of these renovations, the most significant notable was the construction of Hyde Park's Serpentine, the parks massive human-made lake.<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref> Following this, Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV employed Decimus Burton to construct an entrance at Hyde Park Corner. Burton went on to replace the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates, as well. From then on, majority of how Hyde Park appears today is Decimus Burton left it back almost 200 years ago.<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
The following is a pdf of a short pamphlet detailing green spaces change in definition over the last 200 years of English history.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/e/e2/Green_Space.pdf How London Has Kept Green]
 

=Conclusion=
 
Green space represents a basic human necessity of remain in contact, on some level, with nature. Most American cities take a measured departure from maintaining modern green space as progress and innovation demand more space. London stands out as an example of a European high-density 'compact city' progressive not only it technology as well as public green spaces. London benefits from a long history with green spaces, allowing implementation green space in the evolving cityscape at such a level.
 

=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

User:Crfawcett

2017-06-22T20:45:02Z

Crfawcett:

=Cole Fawcett=
{{Infobox
|title = Cole Fawcett
|header1 =
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:Cole_Fawcett_in_London.jpg|x450px|alt=Cole Fawcett]]
|caption =
|label2 =
|data2 =
}}

__TOC__

=Overview=
My project as a whole focuses on the gaining a deeper understanding of my surroundings through the analysis of historical views and context here in London. I saw London HUA as an ideal opportunity to look into and study history around me in such a famous, international captial. I've always enjoyed the history, learning from it and gaining a better awareness of how the world has come to be shaped as it has. Overall, I felt privileged to be accepted and take part of the London HUA Project and experience London in such a unique way.
 

=Milestone 1=
 
'''London's Architectural Preservation of History''' 
'''Objective:''' To address and analyze how and why London has successfully preserved and upheld its most ancient landmarks, rescuing them from natural erosion and deconstruction.
 
Through investigating conservation conventions taken in the cases of Saint Paul's Cathedral and the Tower of London's White Tower, I found that conservation as a term has adopted many meanings over the centuries. From simply keeping a building standing, the term evolved to preventative measures on issues of instability and air pollution. Contemporary emphasis has been put on maintaining iconic view of structures as necessary in their conservation. Buildings like Saint Paul's and White Tower have gone on to shape their environments in efforts to keep the structures themselves from changing. Using the visual aid of pictures, this milestone examines how a greater context informs these sites and how these sites have informed their surrounding context.
 
[[London's Architectural Preservation of History|Read More]]
 

=Milestone 2=
 
'''Significance of London's Fourth Plinth''' 
'''Objective:''' A detailed look into the inspiration and consequence of the establishment of London's Fourth Plinth.
 
In this milestone, I analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square and London. Effectively one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, the Fourth plinth has displayed a piece of art atop the plinth at a time, changing every two years or so. My deliverable consisted of an informed argumentative thesis on what the Fourth Plinth Commission represents within Trafalgar Square and London as well. This project's aim was highlight the Fourth Plinth as a unique statement on Trafalgar Square in the spirit of demonstration and critical thought.
 
[[Significance of London's Fourth Plinth|Read More]]
 

=Milestone 3=
 
'''Green Spaces in London''' 
'''Objective:''' An investigation into the presence and proliferation of green spaces, especially parks, within London's city limits.
 
Through my research I found that the broad topic of green spaces paired with London's immense defies simple explanation. As alternative to this seemingly insurmountable dilemma, breaking down to narrative of a single aspect or perspective, focusing on the shifting justification for green space in the evolving cityscape. In working on the project, I noticed over time even as opinions and the ways people use public green space change, the central definition for green space remains constant and ever a necessary component of the city.
 
[[Green Spaces in London|Read More]]
 

=Activity Journal=
 
==Westminster Abbey, the Tower of London, and the British Library==
Monday, May 8th, 2017
:Today, as a whole group London HUA group, we visited [[Westminster_Abbey|Westminster Abby]]. I was taken aback by the sheer number of notable and famous figures interned all within the Abbey's walls. The scale of how much history is concentrated in such a place is nothing sort of remarkable. A place where royal marriages occur mere feet from the graves of the likes of Chaucer and Newton.
:[[Tower_of_London|The Tower of London]], specifically the White Tower within, holds the title of London’s oldest standing building. Despite this, or maybe as a result, the building itself seems to almost meld with the landscape. Nearly one thousand years old now, this ancient work of Norman architecture serves as a beautiful juxtaposition against the post-modern design of the city surrounding it.
:Upon entering the doors of the [[The_British_Library|The British Library]], the eye is drawn the library’s crowning centerpiece, The King’s Library. A massive column of an uncountable number of books upon books dated centuries old. A monument to preservation as well as exhibition, this display remains behind thick glass and locked doors as if to all at once tempt and deny such knowledge.
 
 

==British Museum==
Tuesday, May 9th, 2017
 
:[[British_Museum|The British Museum’s]] entrance itself seems to command some classical authority with its Greek inspired mausoleum front entrance. Boasting exhibits across the worlds ancient cultures to exhibits on modern issues, The British Museum deftly and beautifully captures a monumental swath of human history. Nowhere is this more clear than in the museums "Enlightenment Room." Essentially a glorified hallway with the width of a small ballroom, literary works and art from around the world over the 18th century line the museum's enlightenment room's walls. Pieces and works of all kinds in the vein of enlightenment values of a broader worldly understanding emphasize a unique time when the concept of worldly awareness and recording came to global conscience. Ancient atlases, artifacts from distant trade, and art of all types dominate the space to a point that visitors can't help but be totally enveloped in the wonder of human achievement all cooped up in one room.

 
 

==Saint Paul's Cathedral==
Wednesday, May 10th, 2017
 
:[[St._Paul's_Cathedral|Saint Paul’s Cathedral]], as a whole, felt more like a quaint amalgamation of a gallery as well as a cathedral. Art pieces from sculptures to murals to video installations punctuate Saint Paul’s, filling up and adding to an otherwise empty space. These works help bring the cathedral to the modern day in tackling modern issues of immigration, world conflict, and climate change. At the same time as the cathedral exhibits the work of others, the building itself stands as a gorgeous piece of art all its own. Remarkable engineering and inspiring design choices like the cathedral’s Baroque Architecture.
 

==National Gallery==
Thursday, May 11th, 2017 
:[[The_National_Gallery|The National Gallery]] presents an almost Alice-in-wonderland-esque experience of artistic exploration. Working down from the top floor, works from artists like Leonardo De Vinci and Raphael blend into Claude and Titan into Monet and Van Gogh. An almost spiritual silence exists around the works in the National Gallery, which only serves to benefit all those involved. In touring the gallery, I found myself getting lost, quite literally. The Gallery as a whole allows for the slow digestion of how painting and sculpture metamorphosed with the renaissance and movements like impressionism and pointillism. Because of how gigantic the gallery's collection is, the experience as a whole benefits from not simply rushing through every exhibit to see the most art pieces possible. In touring, I felt almost like I was visiting an elaborate indoor park catered by the greatest works of the greatest painters of their time.
 

==Natural History Museum==
Friday, May 12th, 2017 
:Walking through the front doors of London's [[Natural_History_Museum|Natural History Museum]] seemed to transport me back to the visits to the Science Museum back in home in Saint Paul, Minnesota. A clear hands-on experience is encouraged in every single one of the Natural History Museum's exhibits. Whether to simulate how tectonic plates shift and cause earthquakes or to examine what factors account of the formation and stability of a ecosystem's watershed, the museum makes certain there is an interactive component to education within its walls. Designed for energetic infants to curious elderly, The Natural History Museum welcomes all those who seek to share in the science and the knowledge spanning its colossal range of subjects. The museum contains exhibits on the following (just to name a few): Marine biology, prehistoric zoology, ornithology, earth science, human history, and geology.
 
 

==Tate Britain==
Monday, May 15th, 2017
:[[Tate_Britain|Tate Britain]] seeks to concisely consolidate art history from the fifteen hundreds to present day. While efficiently conveying art's turbulent change and reshaping over the last five-hundred years seems an almost insurmountable task, Tate Britain proves more than capable of getting the job done. walking to the end of Tate Britain's central hallway, by tracing a path in an anti-clockwise direction follows the arrow of time starting in the year of our lord 1500. The biggest jump in style can be undisputedly experienced with the turning of the new millennium. Realism gently paired with abstraction muddies into self-aware pure abstraction. For better or worse, walking with the flow of time informs a more complete experience than any one single exhibit could convey. The whole gallery as a whole becomes an almost meta work of art about the art itself.
 
 

==Victoria and Albert Museum==
Tuesday, May 16th, 2017
:The [[Victoria_and_Albert_Museum|Victoria and Albert Museum]] prides itself as a hub of art and style from the medieval to modern age. This museum did a elegant job of dividing exhibit along lines of culture, technique, and age. Yet, the building remarkably remains consistent in its method of presentation, with modern pieces receiving no more of a spotlight than more elderly pieces or visa versa. 
I was particularly drawn to the unique architecture exhibit. Just as a result of how immense and all-emcompassing architecture is as an art form, museums or places similar often have a difficult time displaying architecture in a closed exhibition room. The V&A comes to a balanced compromise between a purely outside or inside experience by propping up elements of historic buildings like doors and pillars along side an architecture photo gallery. These photographs were taken soon after practical photography became more readily available and people were drawn to capture architecture of the day and past in hopes of securing a preservation of these sites. Old German castle ruins to London streets are captured alike on the faded film.
 
 

==Tate Modern==
Wednesday, May 17th, 2017
:An overbearing modern sentiment purveys every inch of [[Tate_Modern|Tate Modern]]. The central room of Tate Modern harkens back to the style of a industrial warehouse devoid of art or ornamentation. Overall, I felt this gallery's out and inward appearance exuded a brutal sense of taking art as seriously as possible. However, I was delighted to find a excited curiosity to every exhibit I had time to visit. One thing I really enjoy about modern art as an experience is the genre as a whole demands a response as much as its pieces. Tate Modern may not be for everyone, but it remains a place were questions continue to be raised and difficult conversations are shared across people of all kinds.
 
 

==Museum of London==
Thursday, May 18th, 2017
:Proving highly self-explanatory, the [[Museum_of_London|Museum of London]] documents and guides visitors through the history of London. Working of fossil records and pre-history artifacts, the Museum of London's top floor dedicated to detailing human life on the land that would become London and its growth through roman invasion and medieval England into the renaissance. The bottom floor documents the economic, fashion, and political changes from the 1840s to 2013. As a whole, this museum offers a well crafted retrospective on what lead to what is now the city of London.
 
 

==Museum of London Docklands==
Monday, May 22nd, 2017
:Along the River Thames, The [[Museum of London Docklands]], like the Museum of London itself, commits itself the exposé of London's complex rich past. Very similar to the Museum of London, we toured the place in following in chronological order staring with the first port on the Thames in Roman times. The museum caught us up all the way to the Seventies when the central London docks closed and transformed into the area it is today, with the development of commercial and residential buildings. Like most of the site we've visited so far, the museum of did a fine job at getting a large amount of information in an entertaining enough way as to not resemble a lecture.
 

==Imperial War Museum==
Tuesday, May 23rd, 2017
:Finding the [[Imperial War Museum]] feels like a journey all itself. Surrounded in tall trees and grass compose an almost pseudo-park around the entirety of the Museum, with the top of the building's dome just barely peeking over the tallest of trees. Entering through the front entrance of the museum was daunting to say the least. Two absolutely gigantic naval cannons point outward from the front entrance. Apparently actually used put on display after being commissioned and used in both world wars on British naval battleships, the two goliaths of military intimidation almost seem to ironically incise and encourage a closer look. 
The museum itself has four floors full of war artifacts and exhibits mainly oriented around the two world wars, including a holocaust and a family in wartime exhibit. Approaching the staircase from the entrance down the central first floor, a vast array of wartime fighter jets across from to WWI to modern day flanked by WWII bombs used against London along with military land vehicles jutting from the balconies of the floors above. I thought the museum preserved spectacle along with the visceral realities of war in the attitudes of its exhibits. the family in wartime exhibit specifically tackles the london experience of the second world war as an un-compromised microcosm from the perspective of a humble single family. While tough to get through, every exhibit presented its subject matter with respect and successfully portrayed not only the facts of wartime but the emotion as well.
 

==Hampton Court Palace==
Wednesday, May 24th, 2017
:Awestruck probably serves as a fair description of my impression after visiting [[Hampton Court Palace]]. The palace kept me throughly impressed for the entire extent of the visit. Once our group arrived, we all picked up handheld audio tour guides to help us navigate the expanse of the palace. Despite, or possibly in spite of, how large and grandiose the palace appeared from the outside, I wasn't so sure the rooms within the building would have enough to make it worth exploring. However, I was pleasantly surprised to find that each room had plenty of rich history of the art displayed, and the work done, and people who lived in the palace. My personal favorite rooms include the royal chocolate room and the palace kitchens. 
The palace audio guides gave us a lot of specific information regarding the places we visited. We learned that the royal chocolate maker apparently worked for two consecutive kings over the course of several decades. An odd detail was that chocolate was served almost exclusively in the form of what could be described as very strong hot chocolate. The palace's kitchens span the entire front left perimeter buildings of the reception courtyard. Apparently food historians continue to use these medieval kitchen rooms to prepare food as they were back in the time of the palaces operation under the monarchy. When we entered the cooking room where the meat is prepared, an overwhelming smell of smoke permitted the entirety of the building as a man slowly cooked what appeared to be two large pieces of ham over a massive fireplace. In order to accommodate for the absurd amount guests the palace would routinely host, these kitchens would have to run like clockwork with upwards of five spits loaded with meat weighing as much as the men who tended them across all the kitchens fireplaces. It was fascinating to even consider the ridiculous amount of planning and work that had to go into simply running the palace on a day to day basis back in the day.
:Lastly, we visited the unbelievable beautiful gardens behind the palace. The main backyard palace garden cuts itself with five spokes branching outwards from the back entrance of the palace. Covered in neatly trimmed grass and lush meticulously managed bushes and trees, the gardens resembled an almost nature persevere rather than a backyard. From what we had time to explore, we saw a group of what we thought were deer, tropical trees, stunning mad-made lakes, and the worlds largest grapevine. Hampton Court Palaces manages to preserve history while at the same time continuing to excel at spectacle.
 

==Horniman Museum==
Thursday, May 25th, 2017
:Humble and honest, the [[Horniman Museum]] never claims to be more than what its is, a gallery of objects from ancient pianos to preserved horse skulls available to the public for all those curious enough to visit. The first room we visited was a space completely and utterly dedicated to one singular purpose: to display in utter glory the dead bodies of animals of all shapes and sizes. Dead voles to a stuffed tiger, the Horseman Museum makes sure its visitors get a close and personal look at the animal kingdom post-mortem. Glass cases and metal wires delicately arrange animals of different kingdoms, species, and genus. Funnily enough, our group came to the conclusion that this museum seemed like the perfect place for small children. Ironically enough, as we left the exhibit, a stampeding gang of what appeared to be first or second graders pushed past us to get to see all the animals the museum would let them stare at before lunch time. 
The other main exhibit free to the public was the musical instrument exhibit. As straight forward as the animal one a floor above, the exhibit consisted of metal stands and glass cases showcasing the multitude of instruments the world has to offer. Tiny tin shakers to ancient harpsichords, the exhibit accomplishes its task of exhibition nicely and without complaint. After having visited all the museum had to offer, our group decided to explore the sizable park surrounding the museum. Besides a beautiful view of the London skyline, a impressive gazebo, and a quaint garden, the park seemed like just a nice place to spend a summer day.
 

==The Wallace Collection==
Tuesday, May 30th, 2017
:[[The Wallace Collection]] imposes itself over the space of entire street block. Previously a townhouse of one Richard Wallace, the collection resembles [[Hampton Court Palace]] more than other collections we've seen. The experience as a whole reminded and felt like to me a very fancy house party, with much less food and people and more art and sculptures. Highlights from the visited included the extensive medieval armor and weapon rooms. One room housed a entire full body knight armor set riding a fully armored horse model, a scene that managed to take up most of the entire room. Besides old portraits and rococo fixings and furniture, the most engaging part of the Wallace Collection for myself was the design aspects seen in the collections lower levels. Busts that utilized different types of stone and materials to recreate a person's likeness in color littered the basement level of the collection. A particularly interesting room studied how armor, weapons, art, and architecture were efficiently reproduced in England's middle ages.
 

==London Science Museum==
Wednesday, May 31st, 2017
:The [[London Science Museum]], just off the aptly named Exhibition Road, can be found right next to previous museums we've visited on this trip including the Victoria and Albert Museum and Natural History Museum. Similar to both of those, the London Science Museum appears at first glance a fairly modest museum with a manageable handful of exhibits. However, I'm positive I could have spent my entire day within the science museum's wall without fully exploring all that was available to explore. And that is just what is free to visit to the public. Exhibits ranged from steam powered engines to early biology to material science and all the way to space science. I found myself especially draw to the information age section of the museum that specialized in compartmentalizing the ways by which technology of all types evolved to what they are today. Cellphones, Radio, Television, the Internet, and more, each with its own corner full of old and fairly new artifacts. The room reminded me of the enlightenment room in the British Museum in its attempt to capture and define a generation of science and advancement all in a finite space for glass cases and information plaques.
 

==Romeo and Juliet at the Globe Theater==
Tuesday, June 6th, 2017
:As a whole, spending the evening at the [[The Globe Theater|Globe Theater]] was a memorable to say the least. Priding itself as a more contemporary performance of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, experience as a whole never failed to be entertaining. I had the unfortunate realization that I had left my ticket for the show at the flats only upon arriving at the gates. Luckily, we had left for the show uncharacteristically and unintentionally early, which left we with 45 minutes to sprint back to the bus station and pray that I had enough time to get back. By some miracle, I was able to make it back to the entrance with a good thee minutes to spare. However in the time between my frantic beeline home and my return, what started out as light drizzling over our heads had transformed into large drops of slow rain. For better or worse, our seat had us right on the edge of the stage, forming something of a mosh pit. Unfortunately, the shape of the globe theater resembles a large donut from bird's-eye-view, with a small roof covering most of the stage but none of where we all were standing. To make matters worse, once the production actually started, the rainy evening decided to kick it up an notch, committing itself into a full on downpour, poised to soak us to the bone.
Most of us had brought light jackets or had bought thin white ponchos but no one had prepared for the sheer torrent of water that dropped on us over the first act. Despite the apparent unpleasantness of the situation, I was able to actually really enjoy most of the first half of the show when I could hear it through the storm. Luckily, the downpour let up through the end of the first act and showed little sign of coming back. Left slightly soaked and chilled as the sun set, the intermission helped everyone prepare to really enjoy the show, as anyone still left standing clearly felt committed to seeing the performance to its end.
The performance itself was incredible. From my impression of the show, the show felt as though it combined elements of cirque du soleil with Shakespearean vocabulary. A little over-the-top at points, I thought though that the play overall was pretty original and charming in its liberties from the original script as well as its faithfulness to it. Modern references paired with Shakespearean prose mixed surprisingly well. In the end I felt the performance and experience around it were unforgettable to say the least.
 

==Stonehenge and Bath==
Thursday, June 8th, 2017
:I had never experienced a bus tour before this trip, so I went into this day-long tour of England with low expectations and blind eyes. I can say with confidence that today, June 8th, was the best day spent in England so far. Our guide, Andrew was the best person to have along our trip possible. He brought humor and knowledge to the trip in a very self-aware way. He genuinely took time to make sure all of us got the most out of each location we visited. As a supervisor to the bus tour as a whole, Andrew did an impeccable job at keeping the mood light and playful, while simultaneously respectful and thoughtful. 
The first site we visited was Stonehenge. I really enjoyed how the attitude around the stones themselves was to successfully convince visitors that the stones were more than just...well, stones. Some admittedly mucky weather failed to ruin our visit to the stones, setting an almost eerie vibe around such ancient and massive rocks. After grabbing some hot chocolate on our way back on the bus, we headed off towards the city of Bath. 
Entering Bath felt like going through the wardrobe into Narnia. Climbing a steep pass and defending a sharp hill, the way to Bath felt like an adventure all itself. The roman architecture and lush green backdrop reminded me of a beautiful city in Italy rather than England. Once a city committed to luxury of the English aristocracy, the city of Bath seems to be a careful combination of equal parts quaint and posh. From the restaurants, to the cathedral, to the baths themselves, Everyone was taken in by the wonder of Bath's charm. 
==Windsor Castle==
Monday, June 12th, 2017
:The first thing that stuck me when we arrived at the castle gates was the peculiar proximity to city life. Off all the palaces and castles we have been graced to visit over this trip, no other one lied so close to stone cobbled city streets. As a residence for the Queen, however, I absolutely understand the convenience such a location provides. I'm fairly certain the Queen lives closer to a McDonnell's than I do back home in Saint Paul, MN. Besides this closeness, entering the castle felt like stepping into a compartmentalized town. The place was littered with gorgeous gardens and medieval castle turrets. After visiting only a little over two weeks ago, a comparison between [[Windsor Castle]] and Hampton Court Palace is impossible to resist. Most likely a result of a large part of the castle still in use by the royal family, the tour of the castle's facilities was fairly straightforward and didn't take too long. Within an hour, most of the group had completed a full visit of what Windsor had to offer. I would never say the visit was anything near boring or too short. I think after so many visits to museums, galleries, palaces, and performances, Windsor Castle served as a well-paced sweet cherry on top of a full London experience.
 

===My Complete Contributions===
====[[Special:Contributions/crfawcett|All of My Created Content and Edits]]====
 
 

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:Profiles]]
[[Category:2017]]
[[Category:Advisor:Manzo]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T20:24:25Z

Crfawcett: /* Conclusion */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hampstead Heath, One of London's Oldest Public Green Spaces<ref>London, T. O. (2012, June 20). Hampstead Heath Swimming Ponds. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.timeout.com/london/outdoor/hampstead-heath-swimming-ponds</ref>
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. The most recent course I had taken before being a part of London was Topics in American Social History, which focused on green spaces and their development in Worcester, MA. Inspired by this experience, this project presents London's complex history with greens spaces, with the deliverable component consisting of a informational pamphlet. Coming from a familiarity with the green space landscape of the small city of Worcester, London's long relationship with public green spaces presented a challenge to create a means to present such a rich background.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone covers
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park consisting of over 350 acres land stands as one of London's most famous royal park. While Hyde Park's land has likely been in use for millennia, the history of the land as a park dates back to Henry VII "acquiring" it from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536, as part of his establishment of the Church of England. Once under his authority, Henry VII and his court used the land as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer and similar game. Hyde Park would remain a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access to non-royals. James I made the pivotal decision of establishing Hyde Park as a park for the people with his opening the land to the general public in 1637. Over the years following its establishment as a royal park, Hyde Park has changed in its appearance and well as its use by Londoners. In 1665, Londoners fled to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the pervasive disease in the city. By end of the 17th century, Royalty called for adding artificially lighting along a path frequented by the new king, William III. Lit by 300 oil lamps, King's Road, more famously known as Rotten Row, became the first road in England to be lit at night. The next renovations came in the 1730s with Queen Caroline, wife of George II, pushing for extensive renovations carried out. Of these renovations, the most significant notable was the construction of Hyde Park's Serpentine, the parks massive human-made lake.<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref> Following this, Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV employed Decimus Burton to construct an entrance at Hyde Park Corner. Burton went on to replace the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates, as well. From then on, majority of how Hyde Park appears today is Decimus Burton left it back almost 200 years ago.<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
The following is a pdf of a short pamphlet detailing green spaces change in definition over the last 200 years of English history.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/e/e2/Green_Space.pdf How London Has Kept Green]
 

=Conclusion=
 

 

=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T20:22:06Z

Crfawcett:

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hampstead Heath, One of London's Oldest Public Green Spaces<ref>London, T. O. (2012, June 20). Hampstead Heath Swimming Ponds. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.timeout.com/london/outdoor/hampstead-heath-swimming-ponds</ref>
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. The most recent course I had taken before being a part of London was Topics in American Social History, which focused on green spaces and their development in Worcester, MA. Inspired by this experience, this project presents London's complex history with greens spaces, with the deliverable component consisting of a informational pamphlet. Coming from a familiarity with the green space landscape of the small city of Worcester, London's long relationship with public green spaces presented a challenge to create a means to present such a rich background.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone covers
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park consisting of over 350 acres land stands as one of London's most famous royal park. While Hyde Park's land has likely been in use for millennia, the history of the land as a park dates back to Henry VII "acquiring" it from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536, as part of his establishment of the Church of England. Once under his authority, Henry VII and his court used the land as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer and similar game. Hyde Park would remain a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access to non-royals. James I made the pivotal decision of establishing Hyde Park as a park for the people with his opening the land to the general public in 1637. Over the years following its establishment as a royal park, Hyde Park has changed in its appearance and well as its use by Londoners. In 1665, Londoners fled to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the pervasive disease in the city. By end of the 17th century, Royalty called for adding artificially lighting along a path frequented by the new king, William III. Lit by 300 oil lamps, King's Road, more famously known as Rotten Row, became the first road in England to be lit at night. The next renovations came in the 1730s with Queen Caroline, wife of George II, pushing for extensive renovations carried out. Of these renovations, the most significant notable was the construction of Hyde Park's Serpentine, the parks massive human-made lake.<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref> Following this, Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV employed Decimus Burton to construct an entrance at Hyde Park Corner. Burton went on to replace the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates, as well. From then on, majority of how Hyde Park appears today is Decimus Burton left it back almost 200 years ago.<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
The following is a pdf of a short pamphlet detailing green spaces change in definition over the last 200 years of English history.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/e/e2/Green_Space.pdf How London Has Kept Green]
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T20:20:44Z

Crfawcett: /* Section 2: Deliverable */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hampstead Heath, One of London's Oldest Public Green Spaces
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. The most recent course I had taken before being a part of London was Topics in American Social History, which focused on green spaces and their development in Worcester, MA. Inspired by this experience, this project presents London's complex history with greens spaces, with the deliverable component consisting of a informational pamphlet. Coming from a familiarity with the green space landscape of the small city of Worcester, London's long relationship with public green spaces presented a challenge to create a means to present such a rich background.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone covers
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park consisting of over 350 acres land stands as one of London's most famous royal park. While Hyde Park's land has likely been in use for millennia, the history of the land as a park dates back to Henry VII "acquiring" it from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536, as part of his establishment of the Church of England. Once under his authority, Henry VII and his court used the land as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer and similar game. Hyde Park would remain a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access to non-royals. James I made the pivotal decision of establishing Hyde Park as a park for the people with his opening the land to the general public in 1637. Over the years following its establishment as a royal park, Hyde Park has changed in its appearance and well as its use by Londoners. In 1665, Londoners fled to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the pervasive disease in the city. By end of the 17th century, Royalty called for adding artificially lighting along a path frequented by the new king, William III. Lit by 300 oil lamps, King's Road, more famously known as Rotten Row, became the first road in England to be lit at night. The next renovations came in the 1730s with Queen Caroline, wife of George II, pushing for extensive renovations carried out. Of these renovations, the most significant notable was the construction of Hyde Park's Serpentine, the parks massive human-made lake.<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref> Following this, Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV employed Decimus Burton to construct an entrance at Hyde Park Corner. Burton went on to replace the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates, as well. From then on, majority of how Hyde Park appears today is Decimus Burton left it back almost 200 years ago.<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
The following is a pdf of a short pamphlet detailing green spaces change in definition over the last 200 years of English history.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/e/e2/Green_Space.pdf How London Has Kept Green]
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

File:Green Space.pdf

2017-06-22T20:20:19Z

Crfawcett:

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T20:14:16Z

Crfawcett:

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hampstead Heath, One of London's Oldest Public Green Spaces
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. The most recent course I had taken before being a part of London was Topics in American Social History, which focused on green spaces and their development in Worcester, MA. Inspired by this experience, this project presents London's complex history with greens spaces, with the deliverable component consisting of a informational pamphlet. Coming from a familiarity with the green space landscape of the small city of Worcester, London's long relationship with public green spaces presented a challenge to create a means to present such a rich background.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone covers
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park consisting of over 350 acres land stands as one of London's most famous royal park. While Hyde Park's land has likely been in use for millennia, the history of the land as a park dates back to Henry VII "acquiring" it from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536, as part of his establishment of the Church of England. Once under his authority, Henry VII and his court used the land as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer and similar game. Hyde Park would remain a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access to non-royals. James I made the pivotal decision of establishing Hyde Park as a park for the people with his opening the land to the general public in 1637. Over the years following its establishment as a royal park, Hyde Park has changed in its appearance and well as its use by Londoners. In 1665, Londoners fled to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the pervasive disease in the city. By end of the 17th century, Royalty called for adding artificially lighting along a path frequented by the new king, William III. Lit by 300 oil lamps, King's Road, more famously known as Rotten Row, became the first road in England to be lit at night. The next renovations came in the 1730s with Queen Caroline, wife of George II, pushing for extensive renovations carried out. Of these renovations, the most significant notable was the construction of Hyde Park's Serpentine, the parks massive human-made lake.<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref> Following this, Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV employed Decimus Burton to construct an entrance at Hyde Park Corner. Burton went on to replace the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates, as well. From then on, majority of how Hyde Park appears today is Decimus Burton left it back almost 200 years ago.<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 

 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T20:12:52Z

Crfawcett: /* Hyde Park */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. The most recent course I had taken before being a part of London was Topics in American Social History, which focused on green spaces and their development in Worcester, MA. Inspired by this experience, this project presents London's complex history with greens spaces, with the deliverable component consisting of a informational pamphlet. Coming from a familiarity with the green space landscape of the small city of Worcester, London's long relationship with public green spaces presented a challenge to create a means to present such a rich background.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone covers
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park consisting of over 350 acres land stands as one of London's most famous royal park. While Hyde Park's land has likely been in use for millennia, the history of the land as a park dates back to Henry VII "acquiring" it from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536, as part of his establishment of the Church of England. Once under his authority, Henry VII and his court used the land as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer and similar game. Hyde Park would remain a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access to non-royals. James I made the pivotal decision of establishing Hyde Park as a park for the people with his opening the land to the general public in 1637. Over the years following its establishment as a royal park, Hyde Park has changed in its appearance and well as its use by Londoners. In 1665, Londoners fled to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the pervasive disease in the city. By end of the 17th century, Royalty called for adding artificially lighting along a path frequented by the new king, William III. Lit by 300 oil lamps, King's Road, more famously known as Rotten Row, became the first road in England to be lit at night. The next renovations came in the 1730s with Queen Caroline, wife of George II, pushing for extensive renovations carried out. Of these renovations, the most significant notable was the construction of Hyde Park's Serpentine, the parks massive human-made lake.<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref> Following this, Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV employed Decimus Burton to construct an entrance at Hyde Park Corner. Burton went on to replace the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates, as well. From then on, majority of how Hyde Park appears today is Decimus Burton left it back almost 200 years ago.<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 

 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T20:12:24Z

Crfawcett: /* Hyde Park */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. The most recent course I had taken before being a part of London was Topics in American Social History, which focused on green spaces and their development in Worcester, MA. Inspired by this experience, this project presents London's complex history with greens spaces, with the deliverable component consisting of a informational pamphlet. Coming from a familiarity with the green space landscape of the small city of Worcester, London's long relationship with public green spaces presented a challenge to create a means to present such a rich background.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone covers
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park consisting of over 350 acres land stands as one of London's most famous royal park. While Hyde Park's land has likely been in use for millennia, the history of the land as a park dates back to Henry VII "acquiring" it from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536, as part of his establishment of the Church of England. Once under his authority, Henry VII and his court used the land as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer and similar game. Hyde Park would remain a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access to non-royals. James I made the pivotal decision of establishing Hyde Park as a park for the people with his opening the land to the general public in 1637. Over the years following its establishment as a royal park, Hyde Park has changed in its appearance and well as its use by Londoners. In 1665, Londoners fled to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the pervasive disease in the city. By end of the 17th century, Royalty called for adding artificially lighting along a path frequented by the new king, William III. Lit by 300 oil lamps, King's Road, more famously known as Rotten Row, became the first road in England to be lit at night. The next renovations came in the 1730s with Queen Caroline, wife of George II, pushing for extensive renovations carried out. Of these renovations, the most significant notable was the construction of Hyde Park's Serpentine, the parks massive human-made lake.<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref> Following this, Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV employed Decimus Burton to construct an entrance at Hyde Park Corner. Burton went on to replace the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates, as well. From then on, majority of how Hyde Park appears today is Decimus Burton left it back almost 200 years ago.<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 

 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T20:11:21Z

Crfawcett: /* Hyde Park */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. The most recent course I had taken before being a part of London was Topics in American Social History, which focused on green spaces and their development in Worcester, MA. Inspired by this experience, this project presents London's complex history with greens spaces, with the deliverable component consisting of a informational pamphlet. Coming from a familiarity with the green space landscape of the small city of Worcester, London's long relationship with public green spaces presented a challenge to create a means to present such a rich background.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone covers
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park consisting of over 350 acres land stands as one of London's most famous royal park. While Hyde Park's land has likely been in use for millennia, the history of the land as a park dates back to Henry VII "acquiring" it from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536, as part of his establishment of the Church of England. Once under his authority, Henry VII and his court used the land as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer and similar game. Hyde Park would remain a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access to non-royals. James I made the pivotal decision of establishing Hyde Park as a park for the people with his opening the land to the general public in 1637. Over the years following its establishment as a royal park, Hyde Park has changed in its appearance and well as its use by Londoners. In 1665, Londoners fled to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the pervasive disease in the city. By end of the 17th century, Royalty called for adding artificially lighting along a path frequented by the new king, William III. Lit by 300 oil lamps, King's Road, more famously known as Rotten Row, became the first road in England to be lit at night. The next renovations came in the 1730s with Queen Caroline, wife of George II, pushing for extensive renovations carried out. Of these renovations, the most significant notable was the construction of Hyde Park's Serpentine, the parks massive human-made lake.<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref> Following this, Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV employed Decimus Burton to construct an entrance at Hyde Park Corner. Burton went on to replace the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates, as well. From then on, majority of how Hyde Park appears today is Decimus Burton left it back almost 200 years ago.<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 
In 1866, Edmund Beales' Reform League marched on Hyde Park. Following brawls braking out between the League and the police, the Prime Minister came around to allowing the meetings to continue unchallenged and since 1872, people have been allowed to speak at Hyde Park's Speaker's Corner on any subject they want to. The Lido was set up by George Lansbury, the first Commissioner of Works, in 1930 and in warm weather is used for sunbathing and swimming.
<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 

 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T19:39:06Z

Crfawcett: /* Pamphlet on Green Space in London */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. The most recent course I had taken before being a part of London was Topics in American Social History, which focused on green spaces and their development in Worcester, MA. Inspired by this experience, this project presents London's complex history with greens spaces, with the deliverable component consisting of a informational pamphlet. Coming from a familiarity with the green space landscape of the small city of Worcester, London's long relationship with public green spaces presented a challenge to create a means to present such a rich background.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone covers
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park

covers over 350 arces

Henry VII acquired Hyde Park from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536
he and his court used it as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer
Remained a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access

Changed the nature of the park completely
He had the Ring (north of the present Serpentine boathouses) created
1637 opened the park to the general public

In 1665, the year of the Great Plague, many citizens of London fled the City to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the disease.

Towards the end of the 17th century William III moved his court to Kensington Palace
He found that his walk to St James's was very dangerous, so he had 300 oil lamps installed, creating the first artificially lit highway in the country. This route later became known as Rotten Row.

Queen Caroline, wife of George II, had extensive renovations carried out and in the 1730s had The Serpentine, a lake of some 11.34 hectares, created.

Hyde Park became a venue for national celebrations. In 1814 the Prince Regent organised fireworks to mark the end of the Napoleonic Wars, in 1851 (during Queen Victoria's reign) the Great Exhibition was held and in 1977 a Silver Jubilee Exhibition was held in honour of Queen Elizabeth II's 25 years on the throne.

In 1866 Edmund Beales' Reform League marched on Hyde Park where great scuffles broke out between the League and the police. Eventually the Prime Minister allowed the meetings to continue unchallenged and since 1872, people have been allowed to speak at Speaker's Corner on any subject they want to.

The Lido was set up by George Lansbury, the first Commissioner of Works, in 1930 and in warm weather is used for sunbathing and swimming.
<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref>

Hyde Park was created to satisfy a royal passion for hunting. But over the years it became a place where people have pursued many other pleasures.

The appearance of the park remained very much the same until 1625 when Charles l became king. He created a circular track called the Ring where members of the royal court could drive their carriages. The park was opened to the public in 1637 and it soon became a fashionable place to visit, particularly on May Day.

Bigger changes happened when William and Mary became king and queen in 1689. They bought Nottingham House on the western edge of the park. They renamed it Kensington Palace and made it their main home in London. To get from Kensington to Westminster, they created a processional route through Hyde Park. It was lit by 300 oil lamps and was the first road in England to be lit at night. The road was called route de roi or King's Road but the name became corrupted to Rotten Row.

Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV ordered a makeover. He employed Decimus Burton to create a monumental entrance at Hyde Park Corner. It comprised the Triumphal Screen you can still see today and the Wellington Arch, which was later moved to the middle of roundabout at Hyde Park Corner. Burton also replaced the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates. At around the same time, John Rennie built a bridge across the Serpentine and Hyde Park was formally split from Kensington Gardens by a new road called West Carriage Drive.

what you see in Hyde Park is largely how Decimus Burton left it.
<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 

 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T19:38:31Z

Crfawcett: /* Introduction */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. The most recent course I had taken before being a part of London was Topics in American Social History, which focused on green spaces and their development in Worcester, MA. Inspired by this experience, this project presents London's complex history with greens spaces, with the deliverable component consisting of a informational pamphlet. Coming from a familiarity with the green space landscape of the small city of Worcester, London's long relationship with public green spaces presented a challenge to create a means to present such a rich background.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone covers
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park

covers over 350 arces

Henry VII acquired Hyde Park from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536
he and his court used it as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer
Remained a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access

Changed the nature of the park completely
He had the Ring (north of the present Serpentine boathouses) created
1637 opened the park to the general public

In 1665, the year of the Great Plague, many citizens of London fled the City to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the disease.

Towards the end of the 17th century William III moved his court to Kensington Palace
He found that his walk to St James's was very dangerous, so he had 300 oil lamps installed, creating the first artificially lit highway in the country. This route later became known as Rotten Row.

Queen Caroline, wife of George II, had extensive renovations carried out and in the 1730s had The Serpentine, a lake of some 11.34 hectares, created.

Hyde Park became a venue for national celebrations. In 1814 the Prince Regent organised fireworks to mark the end of the Napoleonic Wars, in 1851 (during Queen Victoria's reign) the Great Exhibition was held and in 1977 a Silver Jubilee Exhibition was held in honour of Queen Elizabeth II's 25 years on the throne.

In 1866 Edmund Beales' Reform League marched on Hyde Park where great scuffles broke out between the League and the police. Eventually the Prime Minister allowed the meetings to continue unchallenged and since 1872, people have been allowed to speak at Speaker's Corner on any subject they want to.

The Lido was set up by George Lansbury, the first Commissioner of Works, in 1930 and in warm weather is used for sunbathing and swimming.
<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref>

Hyde Park was created to satisfy a royal passion for hunting. But over the years it became a place where people have pursued many other pleasures.

The appearance of the park remained very much the same until 1625 when Charles l became king. He created a circular track called the Ring where members of the royal court could drive their carriages. The park was opened to the public in 1637 and it soon became a fashionable place to visit, particularly on May Day.

Bigger changes happened when William and Mary became king and queen in 1689. They bought Nottingham House on the western edge of the park. They renamed it Kensington Palace and made it their main home in London. To get from Kensington to Westminster, they created a processional route through Hyde Park. It was lit by 300 oil lamps and was the first road in England to be lit at night. The road was called route de roi or King's Road but the name became corrupted to Rotten Row.

Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV ordered a makeover. He employed Decimus Burton to create a monumental entrance at Hyde Park Corner. It comprised the Triumphal Screen you can still see today and the Wellington Arch, which was later moved to the middle of roundabout at Hyde Park Corner. Burton also replaced the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates. At around the same time, John Rennie built a bridge across the Serpentine and Hyde Park was formally split from Kensington Gardens by a new road called West Carriage Drive.

what you see in Hyde Park is largely how Decimus Burton left it.
<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T19:37:47Z

Crfawcett: /* Abstract */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. The most recent course I had taken before being a part of London was Topics in American Social History, which focused on green spaces and their development in Worcester, MA. Inspired by this experience, this project presents London's complex history with greens spaces, with the deliverable component consisting of a informational pamphlet. Coming from a familiarity with the green space landscape of the small city of Worcester, London's long relationship with public green spaces presented a challenge to create a means to present such a rich background.
 

=Introduction=
 
Describe the essence of this project. 
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park

covers over 350 arces

Henry VII acquired Hyde Park from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536
he and his court used it as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer
Remained a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access

Changed the nature of the park completely
He had the Ring (north of the present Serpentine boathouses) created
1637 opened the park to the general public

In 1665, the year of the Great Plague, many citizens of London fled the City to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the disease.

Towards the end of the 17th century William III moved his court to Kensington Palace
He found that his walk to St James's was very dangerous, so he had 300 oil lamps installed, creating the first artificially lit highway in the country. This route later became known as Rotten Row.

Queen Caroline, wife of George II, had extensive renovations carried out and in the 1730s had The Serpentine, a lake of some 11.34 hectares, created.

Hyde Park became a venue for national celebrations. In 1814 the Prince Regent organised fireworks to mark the end of the Napoleonic Wars, in 1851 (during Queen Victoria's reign) the Great Exhibition was held and in 1977 a Silver Jubilee Exhibition was held in honour of Queen Elizabeth II's 25 years on the throne.

In 1866 Edmund Beales' Reform League marched on Hyde Park where great scuffles broke out between the League and the police. Eventually the Prime Minister allowed the meetings to continue unchallenged and since 1872, people have been allowed to speak at Speaker's Corner on any subject they want to.

The Lido was set up by George Lansbury, the first Commissioner of Works, in 1930 and in warm weather is used for sunbathing and swimming.
<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref>

Hyde Park was created to satisfy a royal passion for hunting. But over the years it became a place where people have pursued many other pleasures.

The appearance of the park remained very much the same until 1625 when Charles l became king. He created a circular track called the Ring where members of the royal court could drive their carriages. The park was opened to the public in 1637 and it soon became a fashionable place to visit, particularly on May Day.

Bigger changes happened when William and Mary became king and queen in 1689. They bought Nottingham House on the western edge of the park. They renamed it Kensington Palace and made it their main home in London. To get from Kensington to Westminster, they created a processional route through Hyde Park. It was lit by 300 oil lamps and was the first road in England to be lit at night. The road was called route de roi or King's Road but the name became corrupted to Rotten Row.

Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV ordered a makeover. He employed Decimus Burton to create a monumental entrance at Hyde Park Corner. It comprised the Triumphal Screen you can still see today and the Wellington Arch, which was later moved to the middle of roundabout at Hyde Park Corner. Burton also replaced the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates. At around the same time, John Rennie built a bridge across the Serpentine and Hyde Park was formally split from Kensington Gardens by a new road called West Carriage Drive.

what you see in Hyde Park is largely how Decimus Burton left it.
<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T19:25:55Z

Crfawcett: /* Hampstead Heath */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. 
2) your prior experience with humanities and arts courses and disciplines 
3) your major takeaways from the experience
 

=Introduction=
 
Describe the essence of this project. 
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park

covers over 350 arces

Henry VII acquired Hyde Park from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536
he and his court used it as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer
Remained a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access

Changed the nature of the park completely
He had the Ring (north of the present Serpentine boathouses) created
1637 opened the park to the general public

In 1665, the year of the Great Plague, many citizens of London fled the City to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the disease.

Towards the end of the 17th century William III moved his court to Kensington Palace
He found that his walk to St James's was very dangerous, so he had 300 oil lamps installed, creating the first artificially lit highway in the country. This route later became known as Rotten Row.

Queen Caroline, wife of George II, had extensive renovations carried out and in the 1730s had The Serpentine, a lake of some 11.34 hectares, created.

Hyde Park became a venue for national celebrations. In 1814 the Prince Regent organised fireworks to mark the end of the Napoleonic Wars, in 1851 (during Queen Victoria's reign) the Great Exhibition was held and in 1977 a Silver Jubilee Exhibition was held in honour of Queen Elizabeth II's 25 years on the throne.

In 1866 Edmund Beales' Reform League marched on Hyde Park where great scuffles broke out between the League and the police. Eventually the Prime Minister allowed the meetings to continue unchallenged and since 1872, people have been allowed to speak at Speaker's Corner on any subject they want to.

The Lido was set up by George Lansbury, the first Commissioner of Works, in 1930 and in warm weather is used for sunbathing and swimming.
<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref>

Hyde Park was created to satisfy a royal passion for hunting. But over the years it became a place where people have pursued many other pleasures.

The appearance of the park remained very much the same until 1625 when Charles l became king. He created a circular track called the Ring where members of the royal court could drive their carriages. The park was opened to the public in 1637 and it soon became a fashionable place to visit, particularly on May Day.

Bigger changes happened when William and Mary became king and queen in 1689. They bought Nottingham House on the western edge of the park. They renamed it Kensington Palace and made it their main home in London. To get from Kensington to Westminster, they created a processional route through Hyde Park. It was lit by 300 oil lamps and was the first road in England to be lit at night. The road was called route de roi or King's Road but the name became corrupted to Rotten Row.

Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV ordered a makeover. He employed Decimus Burton to create a monumental entrance at Hyde Park Corner. It comprised the Triumphal Screen you can still see today and the Wellington Arch, which was later moved to the middle of roundabout at Hyde Park Corner. Burton also replaced the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates. At around the same time, John Rennie built a bridge across the Serpentine and Hyde Park was formally split from Kensington Gardens by a new road called West Carriage Drive.

what you see in Hyde Park is largely how Decimus Burton left it.
<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T19:16:02Z

Crfawcett: /* Hyde Park */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. 
2) your prior experience with humanities and arts courses and disciplines 
3) your major takeaways from the experience
 

=Introduction=
 
Describe the essence of this project. 
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hampstead Heath==

<ref>Hampstead Heath. (1882). The British Medical Journal, 2(1124), 102-102. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25260109</ref>

<ref>Preservation Of Hampstead Heath. (1870). The British Medical Journal, 2(508), 339-339. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25219703</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==
Hyde park

covers over 350 arces

Henry VII acquired Hyde Park from the monks of Westminster Abbey in 1536
he and his court used it as a hunting ground to the hunt for deer
Remained a private hunting ground until James I came to the throne and permitted limited access

Changed the nature of the park completely
He had the Ring (north of the present Serpentine boathouses) created
1637 opened the park to the general public

In 1665, the year of the Great Plague, many citizens of London fled the City to camp on Hyde Park, in the hope of escaping the disease.

Towards the end of the 17th century William III moved his court to Kensington Palace
He found that his walk to St James's was very dangerous, so he had 300 oil lamps installed, creating the first artificially lit highway in the country. This route later became known as Rotten Row.

Queen Caroline, wife of George II, had extensive renovations carried out and in the 1730s had The Serpentine, a lake of some 11.34 hectares, created.

Hyde Park became a venue for national celebrations. In 1814 the Prince Regent organised fireworks to mark the end of the Napoleonic Wars, in 1851 (during Queen Victoria's reign) the Great Exhibition was held and in 1977 a Silver Jubilee Exhibition was held in honour of Queen Elizabeth II's 25 years on the throne.

In 1866 Edmund Beales' Reform League marched on Hyde Park where great scuffles broke out between the League and the police. Eventually the Prime Minister allowed the meetings to continue unchallenged and since 1872, people have been allowed to speak at Speaker's Corner on any subject they want to.

The Lido was set up by George Lansbury, the first Commissioner of Works, in 1930 and in warm weather is used for sunbathing and swimming.
<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref>

Hyde Park was created to satisfy a royal passion for hunting. But over the years it became a place where people have pursued many other pleasures.

The appearance of the park remained very much the same until 1625 when Charles l became king. He created a circular track called the Ring where members of the royal court could drive their carriages. The park was opened to the public in 1637 and it soon became a fashionable place to visit, particularly on May Day.

Bigger changes happened when William and Mary became king and queen in 1689. They bought Nottingham House on the western edge of the park. They renamed it Kensington Palace and made it their main home in London. To get from Kensington to Westminster, they created a processional route through Hyde Park. It was lit by 300 oil lamps and was the first road in England to be lit at night. The road was called route de roi or King's Road but the name became corrupted to Rotten Row.

Hyde Park remained the same for almost 100 years until the 1820s when King George IV ordered a makeover. He employed Decimus Burton to create a monumental entrance at Hyde Park Corner. It comprised the Triumphal Screen you can still see today and the Wellington Arch, which was later moved to the middle of roundabout at Hyde Park Corner. Burton also replaced the park's walls with railings and designed several new lodges and gates. At around the same time, John Rennie built a bridge across the Serpentine and Hyde Park was formally split from Kensington Gardens by a new road called West Carriage Drive.

what you see in Hyde Park is largely how Decimus Burton left it.
<ref>Landscape History. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/landscape-history</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T18:49:51Z

Crfawcett: /* Introduction */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. 
2) your prior experience with humanities and arts courses and disciplines 
3) your major takeaways from the experience
 

=Introduction=
 
Describe the essence of this project. 
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hampstead Heath==

<ref>Hampstead Heath. (1882). The British Medical Journal, 2(1124), 102-102. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25260109</ref>

<ref>Preservation Of Hampstead Heath. (1870). The British Medical Journal, 2(508), 339-339. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25219703</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==

<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T18:48:37Z

Crfawcett: /* Abstract */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone focused on providing a retrospective analysis of green spaces in London. 
2) your prior experience with humanities and arts courses and disciplines 
3) your major takeaways from the experience
 

=Introduction=
Often dismissed in the dichotomy of defining terms of rural and urban, nature's presence within the city finds itself frequently overlooked. As such, London distinguishes itself with a percentage of green space at 33.0%, higher than any major city in the United States. While other cities across the world are known for larger percentages than even London, ... <ref>% of public green space (parks and gardens). (2015). Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.worldcitiescultureforum.com/data/of-public-green-space-parks-and-gardens</ref> in a survey conducted by Greenspace Information for Greater London CIC
 
Describe the essence of this project. 
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hampstead Heath==

<ref>Hampstead Heath. (1882). The British Medical Journal, 2(1124), 102-102. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25260109</ref>

<ref>Preservation Of Hampstead Heath. (1870). The British Medical Journal, 2(508), 339-339. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25219703</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==

<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T18:39:41Z

Crfawcett: /* The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|data1 = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project sought to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like Trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nation's political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding Trafalgar Square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time, "riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the Northern Ireland's sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such an unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved an ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Director, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had come in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158-year-old famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths]... To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art... took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/8/80/Fawcett%2C_Cole_Fourth_Plinth_Argumentative_Essay.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 

==Fourth Plinth Gallery==
 
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote an opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

File:Fawcett, Cole Fourth Plinth Argumentative Essay.pdf

2017-06-22T18:39:03Z

Crfawcett:

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T18:24:13Z

Crfawcett: /* The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|data1 = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project sought to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like Trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nation's political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding Trafalgar Square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time, "riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the Northern Ireland's sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such an unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved an ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Director, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had come in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158-year-old famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths]... To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art... took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 

==Fourth Plinth Gallery==
 
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote an opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T18:23:37Z

Crfawcett: /* Conclusion */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|data1 = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project sought to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like Trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nation's political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding Trafalgar Square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time, "riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the Northern Ireland's sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such an unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved an ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Director, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had come in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158-year-old famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths]... To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art... took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
==Fourth Plinth Gallery==
 
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote an opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T18:22:11Z

Crfawcett: /* The Fourth Plinth */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|data1 = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

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=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project sought to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like Trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nation's political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding Trafalgar Square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time, "riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the Northern Ireland's sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such an unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved an ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Director, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had come in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158-year-old famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths]... To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art... took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
==Fourth Plinth Gallery==
 
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T18:17:36Z

Crfawcett: /* Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|data1 = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project sought to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like Trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nation's political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding Trafalgar Square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time, "riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the Northern Ireland's sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such an unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved an ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Directer, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had came in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158 years famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths].. To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art...took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
==Fourth Plinth Gallery==
 
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T18:11:12Z

Crfawcett: /* History of Trafalgar Square */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|data1 = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project sought to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like Trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nation's political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding trafalgar square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time,"riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the northern irelands sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such a unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved a ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Directer, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had came in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158 years famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths].. To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art...took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
==Fourth Plinth Gallery==
 
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

London's Architectural Preservation of History

2017-06-22T18:06:37Z

Crfawcett: /* Creating and Preserving a Landmark */

=London's Architectural Preservation of History=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = London's Architectual Preservation of History
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:ArchitecturalDiversity.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Perserving a Diverse and Complex City
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This Milestone's aim was to address and analyze how and why London has successfully preserved and upheld its most ancient landmarks, rescuing them from natural erosion and deconstruction and how these means of preservation have changed over time. To this end, I researched the history of Saint Paul's Cathedral and The Tower of London's White Tower through the lens of conservation. These two sites serve as exemplary testaments to architectural conservation's ability to ensure physical buildings themselves along with their own respective legacies. Through the means of photograph, the deliverable component of this milestone takes on a style specifically to showcase contemporary conservation efforts most effectively. What the world sees in the city has become less important than how it's seen, as views and perception become an increasingly defining feature of the modern city.
In summary, this project analyzes Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower directly by reflecting on how centuries of conservation efforts have effect on how these iconic sites of London are seen today.
 

=Introduction=
 
This Milestone studies London's architectural preservation of history through two case studies on Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, the central tower of the Tower of London. My aim is to inform on the modern state and significance of these buildings by largely visual means, rather than literary. Much of history is approached from a literary standpoint, taking the shape of textbooks and periodicals. However, exploring history and its significance to the modern era through literary means alone would be limiting. Though this milestone, my background forms the basis on which my deliverable gallery ought to be observed from. Insight can be drawn from understand both how these buildings came to represent perseverance and what that physically looks like. Utilizing on site photographs taken using a handheld camera, this project is uniquely informed by the experience of living in London. 
This project was inspired by the last pages of chapter four of John Schofield's 'St Paul’s 1897–2013: protection and conservation.' On these pages, Schofield notes that the most recent means of conservation around Saint Paul's Cathedral has been an emphasis on not only maintenance of the cathedral itself, but views of the building. London, like all cities, must maintain a balance between the development of new buildings in the spirit of progressive innovation and the preservation of older buildings that stand as a testament to the city's history. These pressures are only further emphasized by limiting factors on space for urban development within London as a result of London's Green Belt, which is itself contained within the island of Great Britain. With such a long-running, rich English history to maintain, London errs more on the side of conservation. Nowhere is this made more apparent than in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
As long as buildings have existed, methods of preservation or conservation have developed to maintain architectural integrity. The United States' relatively youth means that the oldest landmarks date only several decades older than the country's independence less than three-hundred years ago. England's history dates back to basic agricultural civilization on the English landmass over two-thousand years ago. With much more history to preserve, the city of London today functions as a unique hub of structures ranging in style, construction, and repair. This milestone's central aim requires an in-depth examination of how London's oldest standing structure, the Tower of London's White Tower, and oldest church site, Saint Paul's Cathedral, have managed to adapt, grow and develop as sights of architectural achieve while maintaining a presence in the constantly evolving landscape of city. <ref>Teutonico, J and Fidler, J (1998). ''Time for Change: An Overview of Building-Materials Research for Conservation ofHistoric Structures''. New York: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT)., pg. 45-9.</ref>
 
==Saint Paul's Cathedral==
[[File: Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|Illustration from seventeenth century elevations of Old Saint Paul's. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral as a place of worship has presided as a monument for as long as records of the London area has been in existence. After the Britons fled from invaders in the southern English Isles to London sometime in the 1st century, historical records of London resurface in 604 C.E. These records note the founding of what comes to known as Old Saint Paul's Cathedral by Mellitus, bishop of London. Apart from monastic establishments, Saint Paul's stood as the only place of stately worship through the great fire of 1666 for the people of London. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>Old Saint Paul's stood as the tallest church in all of London, standing at 586 feet and biggest at 72,460 square feet. Tragically, Elizabethan England (1558-1603 C.E.) took a rather careless attitude towards its architectural heritage. As a result, architectural conservation remained nearly unseen. A perfect example of such negligence lie in the example of Old Saint Paul's spire. Struck by a stray lightning bolt, Saint Paul's spire saw no attempt in restoring, what was at the time, London tallest architectural feat. While the roof was at the very least patched, no attempt was ever made to replace such an iconic feature of London's largest church. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226-228.</ref>
The Great Fire of London destroyed about four fifths of London, laying to waste 86 churches and a badly damaged Saint Paul's.
 
Fortunately, with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 came a wealth of talented professionals poised to rebuild and replace the devastation of the Great Fire. [[Christopher Wren]] lied among these professionals, future designer and architect of modern Saint Paul's Cathedral. Building 51 churches and cathedrals across London, Wren's Saint Paul's distinguished itself as the cathedral with the largest undertaking. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>
Wren was afforded such a entirely unique opportunity for urban redefinition, making the city into an 'architectural laboratory' for the development of the protestant parish church. Saint Paul's itself attempted to and succeeded in crystallizing an ideal form of a protestant cathedral.<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (1998). London: the city churches. London: Penguin Group. pg. 25-40.</ref>
 

 
===Early 20th Century and the Great War===
[[File: Zeppelin-over-St-Pauls-Cathedral-London-1930.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral beneath a Zeppelin in 1930. <ref>Edgar Jones, 19 January 2015 - Defence and conflict, First World War, No 10 guest historian series. (n.d.). Air-raid casualties in the First World War. Retrieved June 11, 2017, from https://history.blog.gov.uk/2015/01/19/air-raid-casualties-in-the-first-world-war/</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral's surveyor, Somers Clarke (1897-1906), saw the structures entrance into the 20th century. At the time however, little to no conservation work was done on the cathedral outside of the addition of electric lights in 1899. Mervyn Macartney however, taking over over as surveyor through 1906-31, took as much more active role in conservation of the cathedral. Starting in 1909 with the insertion and installation of hot-water heating system for the building and later installing fire resistance partitions to the cathedrals iconic dome, Macartney started a trend of improvement and change only strengthened in the wake of the first World War. 
To support the war effort, a searchlight was placed on cathedral land to scout for enemy fighters and the cathedral's Golden Gallery was utilized as a practice space for young soldiers to hone skills of signaling. On the 30th September, 1917, in an unfortunate turn-of-events, Saint Paul's Cathedral was struck 'by one of [England's] own shells, which landed on cornice of the south-east corner of the cathedral'. Luckily, the shell failed to cause any highly significant damage to the building's facade or structure. At one point, the cathedral house an 18-pounder gun in the central choir section of the cathedral in 1918. 
While helping country on the warfront, Saint Paul's Cathedral began to tackle its own problems presented with the turn of the second millennium it had seen come to pass. The impending question of the cathedral's stability came to the attention of conservation efforts. Engineer Sir Francis Fox, among other professionals, discuss the legitimacy of the building's structural stability. On the 25th of December, 1924, the District surveyor of the City of London served a 'Dangerous Structures Notice' that would put in motion a clear five-year repair program focused on preserving and insuring the structural integrity of the cathedral. Another concern surrounding Saint Paul's between the two world wars had to do with the height of new office buildings that began to rise close to the cathedral. These buildings represented a threat, as more high-rise office buildings had the potential to obscure, or effectively erase, the famous Saint Paul's dome from the London skyline. Built in 1675 over the previous cathedral of the same name, built 1314, ''?'' which itself was church built over the original Saint Paul's, This Cathedral holds a highly unique space and role in the history of London. As such, reverence beyond the aesthetic beauty of the building was channeled through Godfrey Allen (Surveyor 1931-56) in his proposal of a controlled area surrounding the cathedral. Established to protect and restore important views of the cathedral, the 1938 Saint Paul's Heights Controls made a clear effort to keep Saint Paul's Cathedral relevant in an increasingly modernizing world.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 108-111</ref> 

===World War II Damage===
[[File: Bomb Map around Saint Paul's Cathedral.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|The black circles represent where high explosive bombs fell on or near Saint Paul's Cathedral. Lightly shaded buildings were destroyed by fire or bomb damage.<ref> Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 112</ref>]]
With one world conflict concluded and with the next on its way, Saint Paul's Cathedral prepared itself for a war that would nearly spell its destruction. Various preparations were made to defend against aerial bombardment. Aware of the sheer amount of devastation the evolved bombing of World War II would prove for London, grilles and some carvings from the choir aisles, the Great Model, wood carvings from the library, along with other fittings were all removed from Saint Paul's interior in preparation for the worst. Moved either to crypt or country homes distant from the city, these fittings were seen as valuable enough to remove under threat of enemy retaliation. Lord Nelson, Christopher Wren and the Duke of Wellington's monument were encased in brick in the cathedral's crypt for extra precaution. 
All this effort to preserve what could be preserved in the event of catastrophe proved warranted as twelve to thirteen bombs fell inside a single block radius of the cathedral. Of these, six bombs fell within cathedral property, with two direct strikes to the actual cathedral itself. Remarkably however, the building remained standing after the war had ended. Outside of a few holes in the cathedral ceiling and damage to the exterior, the building as a whole appeared miraculously unharmed after the numerous attacks against London over the course of the war. In 1946, Dean Walter Matthews remarked that there was 'little doubt that Saint Paul's Cathedral's supports to the effect of the blast could not have happened but for the work of repair and consolidation which had so recently been carried out', referring to the five-year conservation efforts carried on a decade prior. Through its miraculous prevailing through war-torn London, Saint Paul’s Cathedral had become a symbol of national survival through the War, adding well to its already considerable stock of symbolic roles.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 111-115</ref> 

===Improvement in the Post-War to Present era===
[[File: Saint Paul's Night River 2.JPG|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral, Shot from Tate Modern. ]]
Following the destruction and devastation met in the 1940s, work to strike a balance between bringing the cathedral into the 21st century and preserving the building as a national landmark has dominated conservation efforts. With this lofty ideal of balance, controversy found a holding in discussions of conservation fairly early on. In 1966, the method approached in cleaning the cathedral's exterior caught criticism from British architectural critic, Ian Nairn. Disgruntled on how the building's upper exterior was cleaned, Nairn complained that "because soot and Portland stone work such a funny magic on each other, St Paul’s should never have been cleaned. The scrubbed parts show a small gain in clarity of detail and an immense loss in personality."<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 117-118</ref> Under Sir Bernard Feilden (Surveyor 1969–77), Saint Paul's gained an elevator, made significant repair to the buildings upper levels, and found itself faced with problems of air pollution and traffic vibration. After a thorough study of the external stonework, Feilden concluded the operation of the Bankside Power Station, built not long after WWII, was responsible for damaging Saint Paul's Cathedral. After shutting down, the Bankside Power Station became modern-day Tate Modern, just across the Thames from Saint Paul's to this day. 
In the following decades, relatively few major conservation works were undertaken until the 1990s. In 1993, Martin Stancliffe (Surveyor 1990-2011) produced a "Quinquennial Report," proposing several immediate and long-term programs of cathedral repair, maintenance and improvement. Most of the major projects of the next two decades were either proposed or hinted at in this Report: stonework repair and cleaning of the exterior, a cleaning of the entire interior, the liturgical reordering and relighting of the interior, and a staged bringing of the entire crypt into public use together with extensive facilities for staff, choir and educational purposes.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 118-119</ref> 
Contemporary movements in modernizing and making the city of London an attractive place to live have encouraged further conservation action. Designated in 2007, St Paul’s Cathedral Conservation Area was established to maintain the character of land uses, building and materials types, open spaces and trees, the use of the area for local and national cultural and political events, ecology and archaeology. Along with this, efforts on behalf of the city have been made add and preserve iconic views of the cathedral. Conservation, and with it a degree of controversy, continues to surround Saint Paul's Cathedral into the present day. In spite of these new challenges Saint Paul's Cathedral is dealt, the building continues to to serve as an exemplary space for gathering, reflection, and beauty. <ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 121-122.</ref>
 

==White Tower==
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref>]]
Located within the fortress of the [[Tower of London]], White Tower presides as one of world's best known castles. Given its name around 1100 C.E., the Tower stands today as the most complete palace in Europe. A brilliant example of Norman architecture, the Tower represents poignant evidence of early 14th century Norman influence in the British Isles. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 44.</ref>Strongly fortified, the square tower perches itself at the center of a defensive work of architecture, evoking stark medieval strength.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64</ref> White Tower stands as London's second largest tower of its age after Colchester tower at four stories connected via angle turrets at the building's corners. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 53-54.</ref>Access to the each floor was possible via the circular north-east turret, with the main entrance on the middle floor, on the south face, still used today.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> Over the years, however, the structure itself has been heavily reconstructed to retain its original shape and structure.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64.</ref>

However, despite the Tower's imposing reputation, the first legitimate systematic investigation of the structure took place only 20 years ago. From 1996 to 1998, White Tower was emptied for new displays and conservation works on the external south elevation, allowing a thorough rundown of the structure with modern methods for scientific analysis. A second round of investigation was only just recently done in 2008 to 2011, while cleaning and conservation of other cardinal elevations and turrets were taking place. The second analysis served to support earlier findings in 1996-8 and expanded in extent, form, and dating of post-medieval alterations and repairs. Previous to these studies, White tower was widely believed to have had more or less remained largely intact from the late 11th century, while others argued the tower evolved in scale over time. With these investigations findings, historians can settle several mysteries concerning the Tower's original plans and construction. These studies found that the structure was largely completed by circa 1100 C.E., with its final design being conceived from outset of the project. It was discovered that raising the roofs of the east and west rooms of the second floor by a story was the one lasting major alteration made to the building. Lastly, analysis has found that there was a significant pause in the primary construction, midway through the first floor, seen in changes in material and technique and in the sculptural detail of St. John's Chapel. Work apparently began around 1078 but only completed by 1100, with a break from 1079-83 to 1090-3.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 

==Photography==
 
In order to understand this project's deliverable, a basic background in photographic techniques is necessary. Specifically, I utilize the following five major conventions of photography: 1) leading lines, 2) formal balance, 3) framing, 4) simplicity, and 5) rule of thirds.
 
===Leading Lines===
 
Leading lines are fairly self-explanatory. They are quite simply lines within an image that leads the eye to another point in the image, or occasionally, out of the image. An important aspect of leading lines come from the fact that any definite line within an image can serve as a leading line. If can pair leading lines with a subject that is placed according to the rule of thirds, covered below, the resulting image should be very strong.
<ref>Masoner, L. (2017, March 7). Leading Lines - Definition in Photography. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.thespruce.com/leading-lines-2688488</ref>
 
===Formal Balance===
 
Formal Balance refers to placing equal weight and importance to both sides of an image. Also known as symmetry, this technique suggests balance and proportionality, while asymmetrical balance, known as Informal balance, make images more interesting. Informal balance suggests a more casual, dynamic, and relaxed feeling.
<ref>Bartel, M. (1999). Some Ideas About Composition and Design Elements, Principles, and Visual Effects. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.goshen.edu/art/ed/Compose.htm</ref>
 
===Framing===
 
Framing is the technique of drawing attention to the subject of your image by blocking other parts of the image with something in the scene. Framing establishes the images context, gives a sense of depth, lead the eye toward the image's focal point. Frames in images come in all shapes and sizes, including shooting through overhanging branches, shooting through windows, using tunnels, arches or doorways, etc.
<ref>Rowse, D. (2013, October 04). Framing Your Shots - Photography Composition Technique. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://digital-photography-school.com/framing-your-shots-photography-composition-technique/</ref>
 
===Simplicity===
 
Simplicity, in terms of an image, just means keeping everything not important much less interesting than what’s important in the frame. Especially avoid lines or objects that lead the eye away from the subject.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 
===Rule of Thirds===
 
One of the most common and widely known techniques of photography. By dividing the screen into three sections vertically and horizontally, the four intersections serve as the most effective points focus. positioning a subject on these intersections makes for a more interesting and dynamic image.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
[[File: St-Pauls-Cathedral-is-ref-007.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Reference photograph to juxtapose the abundance of post-modern architecture against Saint Paul's more classical style and age demanding respect. This image utilizes the rule of thirds.<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved May 18, 2017, from http://www.ikoniclifts.co.uk/resources/case-studies</ref>]] 
==Creating and Preserving a Landmark==
In attempting to inform on the influence and presence Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower command as monuments of architectural history, I set about using photography to capture and display visually the various ways these buildings fit into the city of London. Within this, I sought to provide a gallery photographs to give a guided lens by which to view these structures at the time of London HUA 2017. Saint Paul's Cathedral has retained its current appearance over the past three-hundred forty-two years and White Tower has stood since circa 1100 C.E. With time, naturally comes change. I chose these two unique buildings not simply for their age, but also the perseverance of their image as distinctly representative of London. These buildings stand out against their surroundings, boasting uncommon architectural styles of English Baroque and Norman, respectfully. The goal of this milestone was to answer the question: "How were these structures conserved and what that means?". My answer comes in the form of a comprehensive gallery inspired by Saint Paul's most recent conservation efforts to preserve not only the building itself but its visibility in London's urban landscape.
 
My approach to White Tower examines the tower's most striking and defining feature, the structure's age. As a direct result of how old White Tower is and appears, every building surrounding the Tower of London serves as a sharp contrast. When compared to a 12th century fortress, buildings like London's Shard and Gherkin look more like science fiction that post-modern architecture. As London's oldest standing structure, the tower has gone through extensive conservation efforts to keep the building stable and operational. My gallery of the White Tower highlights these realities of the tower, each tackling a specific feature. Moving right from the sketched plans for the Tower of London, the gallery's first picture pins the tower between the distant features of the modern urban environment and the closer lush influence of the Tower of London's trees. Through this use of framing and the rule of thirds, the white tower allows itself to be emphasized as much more of a piece of the landscape, being covered partially by the natural presence of the trees, rather than recent ornament to it. The second picture simply seeks to portray the tower as a monument to itself. With an age harking back to the middle ages, photographic simplicity of the background is used to draw in the view to examine the preserved stone make-up of the tower raw façade. The third picture highlights the contrasting color and geometry between the tower on left and the tower on the right, serving as a perfect example of informal balance. This separation in years, styles, and shape all manifest as the physical distant depicted in this shot. The fourth picture presents the same subject matter but this time juxtaposing the two very directly, both buildings effectively serving as framing for the other. The light, focus, and composition favors the towering figure of London's Shard above the White Tower. However, the entire Tower of London also appears more vast and stable than the Shard's thin frame. By the use of photography techniques, these pictures are able to convey intent alongside the literal material presented. In my gallery for Saint Paul's Cathedral, photographic composure is further emphasized.
 
Throughout my background, I detail the conservation methods and approaches to Saint Paul's over the last hundred years, combating and persevering against dilemmas from pollution to air-raids. The legacy of Old Saint Paul's Cathedral survives by its modern equivalent, serving as a place of community, solidarity, and pride for Londoners. In the pictures below, I set about framing the cathedral, in a very real sense, within its modern context. The first picture following the Old Saint Paul's Cathedral sketches catches the cathedral engulfed and absorbed by its environment. With the dark blue shade of the Thames reflecting the light blue of the sky, the whole shot embodies a cohesive theme. While Saint Paul's signature baroque dome defines the city skyline, it doesn't dominate the entire shot. Room is left through the use of photographic simplicity for other buildings in the distance to mark their shape on the cities outline. Through this, the Saint Paul's Cathedral can be seen as 'one of many.' The next picture serves as a deliberate contrast to the first picture. The sharp handrails of Millennium Bridge serve as leading lines, focusing the viewers' eyes towards that same famous dome with authority. Saint Paul's unique English Baroque architecture and size are emphasized in this shot as the building is framed in an effort to draw in its potential audience, a feature clearly calculated by the bridge's engineers. The gallery's next picture appropriately follows the previous picture's forward momentum. In this closer shot, more direct comparison can be made between the cathedral and the surrounding architecture. The sharp corners and square geometry of the both sides of the shot oppose, and through this further emphasize the uncommon smooth curvature and classical influence that Saint Paul's channels. Like the previous picture, the roofs of the contemporary buildings serve as leading lines, directing focus away from themselves and towards the 342-year-old cathedral sitting comfortable at the center of the shot. The darkness of the shot also helps simplify the framing of Saint Paul's. Departing from the thematic consistency of the first three pictures, the next picture frames Saint Paul's with modern architecting from all sides. The entirety of building seems clearly out of place, standing out as the only white stone building in the shot. Buildings composed of concrete, red brick, glass, and steel dominate the scene's landscape. Metal construction cranes rise on opposite sides of the cathedral while the most striking element of the picture, the overbearing steel beams of the overhead bridge, appears to be completely trap this article of the past in London's urban modernity. Such a use of framing Saint Paul's with dark objects makes Saint Paul's cathedral appear cramped and focused on for its lack of conformity. The next shot resembles the first picture in many ways but provides a wider scope to take in the city as a whole. From the riverside, London's iconic features are set on display upon a level playing-field; that is to say, Saint Paul's, the Leadenhall Building, and the Walkie-Talkie all appear around the same size against the horizon. Almost the exact opposite of the previous picture, this shot showcases Saint Paul's Cathedral as a vital, defining feature of and testament to London as a capital and international city, just as important visually as London's other buildings. Thee rule of thirds is used in this shot to focus on Saint Paul's specifically and the clear sky, clear river combination simplifies the image. The last two pictures of this gallery take a much more personal approach to experiencing Saint Paul's. Before coming to London, I did very little research into the buildings that define the city's skyline. Because of this, I was unsure of what to expect on Wednesday, May 10th, when my group was scheduled to visit Saint Paul's Cathedral. Walking from our flats, my group decided to take a small alley staircase to get to the cathedral quicker. These last two pictures represent how I first saw Saint Paul's Cathedral here in London that Wednesday morning. From the perspective of the alley way, the second-last shot captures much of what the previous pictures have touched on: focused perspective, modern context, unique architecture, London icon, with framing and leading lines directly getting that message across. The last picture in this gallery distinguishes itself with its approach of blatant honesty. The only visible part of Saint Paul's Cathedral is its dome, a pale blue bulb in an otherwise blank sky. The stairs, surrounding buildings, and lampposts all serve to create a frame-within-a-frame, emphasizing the uniqueness of the cathedral against the dark simplistic foreground. The railings as leading lines and the almost pure white sky's simplicity draw the views to a single point. The idea behind the preservation of sites like this around the city bases itself of the reality that humans are programmed to perceive and react to views in very specific ways. Through conservation works to maintain Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, these site are able to persists historically and visually. Conservation and preservation efforts over the past three centuries allowed Christopher Wren's masterpiece survive and be revered to this day. Saint Paul's Cathedral isn't simply significant historically and religiously to London, the building itself is physically significant to defining London's shape and character.
 

==Gallery==
 
===White Tower===
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|''East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London'']]<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref> 
[[File: West Elevation (2010-11) CAD Isolation of differnt stone types Historic Royal Palaces Roland Harris.png|West Elevation of White Tower draw in CAD by Roland Harris]]<ref>Harris, R (2016). Castles and the Anglo-Norman World. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Tower of London Plans.JPG|''Tower of London historical plans''<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 358.</ref>
Image:Between nature and city.JPG|''White Tower framed between its natural and urban setting''
Image:Removed and Proud.JPG|''Significantly removed from its urban context, White Tower stands independent and solitary''
Image:Two different worlds.JPG|''This panorama shot captures the larger urban area to give the impression of two incompatible and incongruous styles on display''
Image:White Tower against the Spire.JPG|''White Tower dwarfed by London's crowning modern centerpiece, the Spire''
</gallery>

===Saint Paul's Cathedral===
[[File: Saint Paul's South Transept.JPG|Saint Paul's South Transept]]
[[File: Photogrammetric Survey of Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall.png|Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall with color coded mark ups of pieces replaced or repaired dating back 300 years.]]<ref>Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 119.</ref> 
 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|''Old Saint Paul's Reference Sketches''<ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>
Image:Riverside Saint Paul Skyline.JPG|''Riverside Saint Paul Skyline''
Image:Destination Saint Paul's2.JPG|''Modern form of the Millennial Bridge framing towards Saint Paul's''
Image:Crowded Small Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's Cathedral crowded by contemporary buildings''
Image:Saint Paul's Crowded by Modernity.JPG|''Saint Paul's surrounded in contemporary architecture''
Image:Part of the Land Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's blending into the London skyline''
Image:Down the Alley.jpg|''Saint Paul's Cathedral's iconic dome highlighted by the alleys narrow features''
Image: Stairway.jpg|''With only the very top of Saint Paul's peaking over the top step, this staircase deliberately channels attention and reverence''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
Architecture is a unique art-form in that it enables architects to instill ideas and ideals into part of the city, defining itself as well as it environment. Because of this, conservation work essentially seeks to preserve the character of the city. Conservation, as a result, defines a city in its attempts to maintain it. London's emphasis on conservation seen in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower reflects an attitude of pride and resilience. A cathedral proudly standing for 342 years in place of the even more ancient Old Saint Paul's Cathedral that stood for centuries before it and a medieval castle nearing the age of a millennium deftly preserved and still in use; these two structures stand as monuments to the dedication and determination behind their collective conservation. Both examples of architecture, Norman and English Baroque, remain nearly unseen in London at such a preserved condition. As these structures demonstrate their value on the London landscape in such a physical way, I sought to capture and examine each site's characteristics and defining features through photography, utilizing photographic techniques to emphasize the ideas each building has come to represent. It was a pleasure to examine London architecture on a scale larger than each building itself, and through the lens of visual analysis.
 

=References=
 
<references />
 
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

London's Architectural Preservation of History

2017-06-22T17:54:53Z

Crfawcett: /* Photography */

=London's Architectural Preservation of History=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = London's Architectual Preservation of History
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:ArchitecturalDiversity.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Perserving a Diverse and Complex City
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This Milestone's aim was to address and analyze how and why London has successfully preserved and upheld its most ancient landmarks, rescuing them from natural erosion and deconstruction and how these means of preservation have changed over time. To this end, I researched the history of Saint Paul's Cathedral and The Tower of London's White Tower through the lens of conservation. These two sites serve as exemplary testaments to architectural conservation's ability to ensure physical buildings themselves along with their own respective legacies. Through the means of photograph, the deliverable component of this milestone takes on a style specifically to showcase contemporary conservation efforts most effectively. What the world sees in the city has become less important than how it's seen, as views and perception become an increasingly defining feature of the modern city.
In summary, this project analyzes Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower directly by reflecting on how centuries of conservation efforts have effect on how these iconic sites of London are seen today.
 

=Introduction=
 
This Milestone studies London's architectural preservation of history through two case studies on Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, the central tower of the Tower of London. My aim is to inform on the modern state and significance of these buildings by largely visual means, rather than literary. Much of history is approached from a literary standpoint, taking the shape of textbooks and periodicals. However, exploring history and its significance to the modern era through literary means alone would be limiting. Though this milestone, my background forms the basis on which my deliverable gallery ought to be observed from. Insight can be drawn from understand both how these buildings came to represent perseverance and what that physically looks like. Utilizing on site photographs taken using a handheld camera, this project is uniquely informed by the experience of living in London. 
This project was inspired by the last pages of chapter four of John Schofield's 'St Paul’s 1897–2013: protection and conservation.' On these pages, Schofield notes that the most recent means of conservation around Saint Paul's Cathedral has been an emphasis on not only maintenance of the cathedral itself, but views of the building. London, like all cities, must maintain a balance between the development of new buildings in the spirit of progressive innovation and the preservation of older buildings that stand as a testament to the city's history. These pressures are only further emphasized by limiting factors on space for urban development within London as a result of London's Green Belt, which is itself contained within the island of Great Britain. With such a long-running, rich English history to maintain, London errs more on the side of conservation. Nowhere is this made more apparent than in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
As long as buildings have existed, methods of preservation or conservation have developed to maintain architectural integrity. The United States' relatively youth means that the oldest landmarks date only several decades older than the country's independence less than three-hundred years ago. England's history dates back to basic agricultural civilization on the English landmass over two-thousand years ago. With much more history to preserve, the city of London today functions as a unique hub of structures ranging in style, construction, and repair. This milestone's central aim requires an in-depth examination of how London's oldest standing structure, the Tower of London's White Tower, and oldest church site, Saint Paul's Cathedral, have managed to adapt, grow and develop as sights of architectural achieve while maintaining a presence in the constantly evolving landscape of city. <ref>Teutonico, J and Fidler, J (1998). ''Time for Change: An Overview of Building-Materials Research for Conservation ofHistoric Structures''. New York: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT)., pg. 45-9.</ref>
 
==Saint Paul's Cathedral==
[[File: Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|Illustration from seventeenth century elevations of Old Saint Paul's. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral as a place of worship has presided as a monument for as long as records of the London area has been in existence. After the Britons fled from invaders in the southern English Isles to London sometime in the 1st century, historical records of London resurface in 604 C.E. These records note the founding of what comes to known as Old Saint Paul's Cathedral by Mellitus, bishop of London. Apart from monastic establishments, Saint Paul's stood as the only place of stately worship through the great fire of 1666 for the people of London. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>Old Saint Paul's stood as the tallest church in all of London, standing at 586 feet and biggest at 72,460 square feet. Tragically, Elizabethan England (1558-1603 C.E.) took a rather careless attitude towards its architectural heritage. As a result, architectural conservation remained nearly unseen. A perfect example of such negligence lie in the example of Old Saint Paul's spire. Struck by a stray lightning bolt, Saint Paul's spire saw no attempt in restoring, what was at the time, London tallest architectural feat. While the roof was at the very least patched, no attempt was ever made to replace such an iconic feature of London's largest church. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226-228.</ref>
The Great Fire of London destroyed about four fifths of London, laying to waste 86 churches and a badly damaged Saint Paul's.
 
Fortunately, with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 came a wealth of talented professionals poised to rebuild and replace the devastation of the Great Fire. [[Christopher Wren]] lied among these professionals, future designer and architect of modern Saint Paul's Cathedral. Building 51 churches and cathedrals across London, Wren's Saint Paul's distinguished itself as the cathedral with the largest undertaking. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>
Wren was afforded such a entirely unique opportunity for urban redefinition, making the city into an 'architectural laboratory' for the development of the protestant parish church. Saint Paul's itself attempted to and succeeded in crystallizing an ideal form of a protestant cathedral.<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (1998). London: the city churches. London: Penguin Group. pg. 25-40.</ref>
 

 
===Early 20th Century and the Great War===
[[File: Zeppelin-over-St-Pauls-Cathedral-London-1930.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral beneath a Zeppelin in 1930. <ref>Edgar Jones, 19 January 2015 - Defence and conflict, First World War, No 10 guest historian series. (n.d.). Air-raid casualties in the First World War. Retrieved June 11, 2017, from https://history.blog.gov.uk/2015/01/19/air-raid-casualties-in-the-first-world-war/</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral's surveyor, Somers Clarke (1897-1906), saw the structures entrance into the 20th century. At the time however, little to no conservation work was done on the cathedral outside of the addition of electric lights in 1899. Mervyn Macartney however, taking over over as surveyor through 1906-31, took as much more active role in conservation of the cathedral. Starting in 1909 with the insertion and installation of hot-water heating system for the building and later installing fire resistance partitions to the cathedrals iconic dome, Macartney started a trend of improvement and change only strengthened in the wake of the first World War. 
To support the war effort, a searchlight was placed on cathedral land to scout for enemy fighters and the cathedral's Golden Gallery was utilized as a practice space for young soldiers to hone skills of signaling. On the 30th September, 1917, in an unfortunate turn-of-events, Saint Paul's Cathedral was struck 'by one of [England's] own shells, which landed on cornice of the south-east corner of the cathedral'. Luckily, the shell failed to cause any highly significant damage to the building's facade or structure. At one point, the cathedral house an 18-pounder gun in the central choir section of the cathedral in 1918. 
While helping country on the warfront, Saint Paul's Cathedral began to tackle its own problems presented with the turn of the second millennium it had seen come to pass. The impending question of the cathedral's stability came to the attention of conservation efforts. Engineer Sir Francis Fox, among other professionals, discuss the legitimacy of the building's structural stability. On the 25th of December, 1924, the District surveyor of the City of London served a 'Dangerous Structures Notice' that would put in motion a clear five-year repair program focused on preserving and insuring the structural integrity of the cathedral. Another concern surrounding Saint Paul's between the two world wars had to do with the height of new office buildings that began to rise close to the cathedral. These buildings represented a threat, as more high-rise office buildings had the potential to obscure, or effectively erase, the famous Saint Paul's dome from the London skyline. Built in 1675 over the previous cathedral of the same name, built 1314, ''?'' which itself was church built over the original Saint Paul's, This Cathedral holds a highly unique space and role in the history of London. As such, reverence beyond the aesthetic beauty of the building was channeled through Godfrey Allen (Surveyor 1931-56) in his proposal of a controlled area surrounding the cathedral. Established to protect and restore important views of the cathedral, the 1938 Saint Paul's Heights Controls made a clear effort to keep Saint Paul's Cathedral relevant in an increasingly modernizing world.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 108-111</ref> 

===World War II Damage===
[[File: Bomb Map around Saint Paul's Cathedral.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|The black circles represent where high explosive bombs fell on or near Saint Paul's Cathedral. Lightly shaded buildings were destroyed by fire or bomb damage.<ref> Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 112</ref>]]
With one world conflict concluded and with the next on its way, Saint Paul's Cathedral prepared itself for a war that would nearly spell its destruction. Various preparations were made to defend against aerial bombardment. Aware of the sheer amount of devastation the evolved bombing of World War II would prove for London, grilles and some carvings from the choir aisles, the Great Model, wood carvings from the library, along with other fittings were all removed from Saint Paul's interior in preparation for the worst. Moved either to crypt or country homes distant from the city, these fittings were seen as valuable enough to remove under threat of enemy retaliation. Lord Nelson, Christopher Wren and the Duke of Wellington's monument were encased in brick in the cathedral's crypt for extra precaution. 
All this effort to preserve what could be preserved in the event of catastrophe proved warranted as twelve to thirteen bombs fell inside a single block radius of the cathedral. Of these, six bombs fell within cathedral property, with two direct strikes to the actual cathedral itself. Remarkably however, the building remained standing after the war had ended. Outside of a few holes in the cathedral ceiling and damage to the exterior, the building as a whole appeared miraculously unharmed after the numerous attacks against London over the course of the war. In 1946, Dean Walter Matthews remarked that there was 'little doubt that Saint Paul's Cathedral's supports to the effect of the blast could not have happened but for the work of repair and consolidation which had so recently been carried out', referring to the five-year conservation efforts carried on a decade prior. Through its miraculous prevailing through war-torn London, Saint Paul’s Cathedral had become a symbol of national survival through the War, adding well to its already considerable stock of symbolic roles.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 111-115</ref> 

===Improvement in the Post-War to Present era===
[[File: Saint Paul's Night River 2.JPG|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral, Shot from Tate Modern. ]]
Following the destruction and devastation met in the 1940s, work to strike a balance between bringing the cathedral into the 21st century and preserving the building as a national landmark has dominated conservation efforts. With this lofty ideal of balance, controversy found a holding in discussions of conservation fairly early on. In 1966, the method approached in cleaning the cathedral's exterior caught criticism from British architectural critic, Ian Nairn. Disgruntled on how the building's upper exterior was cleaned, Nairn complained that "because soot and Portland stone work such a funny magic on each other, St Paul’s should never have been cleaned. The scrubbed parts show a small gain in clarity of detail and an immense loss in personality."<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 117-118</ref> Under Sir Bernard Feilden (Surveyor 1969–77), Saint Paul's gained an elevator, made significant repair to the buildings upper levels, and found itself faced with problems of air pollution and traffic vibration. After a thorough study of the external stonework, Feilden concluded the operation of the Bankside Power Station, built not long after WWII, was responsible for damaging Saint Paul's Cathedral. After shutting down, the Bankside Power Station became modern-day Tate Modern, just across the Thames from Saint Paul's to this day. 
In the following decades, relatively few major conservation works were undertaken until the 1990s. In 1993, Martin Stancliffe (Surveyor 1990-2011) produced a "Quinquennial Report," proposing several immediate and long-term programs of cathedral repair, maintenance and improvement. Most of the major projects of the next two decades were either proposed or hinted at in this Report: stonework repair and cleaning of the exterior, a cleaning of the entire interior, the liturgical reordering and relighting of the interior, and a staged bringing of the entire crypt into public use together with extensive facilities for staff, choir and educational purposes.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 118-119</ref> 
Contemporary movements in modernizing and making the city of London an attractive place to live have encouraged further conservation action. Designated in 2007, St Paul’s Cathedral Conservation Area was established to maintain the character of land uses, building and materials types, open spaces and trees, the use of the area for local and national cultural and political events, ecology and archaeology. Along with this, efforts on behalf of the city have been made add and preserve iconic views of the cathedral. Conservation, and with it a degree of controversy, continues to surround Saint Paul's Cathedral into the present day. In spite of these new challenges Saint Paul's Cathedral is dealt, the building continues to to serve as an exemplary space for gathering, reflection, and beauty. <ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 121-122.</ref>
 

==White Tower==
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref>]]
Located within the fortress of the [[Tower of London]], White Tower presides as one of world's best known castles. Given its name around 1100 C.E., the Tower stands today as the most complete palace in Europe. A brilliant example of Norman architecture, the Tower represents poignant evidence of early 14th century Norman influence in the British Isles. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 44.</ref>Strongly fortified, the square tower perches itself at the center of a defensive work of architecture, evoking stark medieval strength.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64</ref> White Tower stands as London's second largest tower of its age after Colchester tower at four stories connected via angle turrets at the building's corners. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 53-54.</ref>Access to the each floor was possible via the circular north-east turret, with the main entrance on the middle floor, on the south face, still used today.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> Over the years, however, the structure itself has been heavily reconstructed to retain its original shape and structure.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64.</ref>

However, despite the Tower's imposing reputation, the first legitimate systematic investigation of the structure took place only 20 years ago. From 1996 to 1998, White Tower was emptied for new displays and conservation works on the external south elevation, allowing a thorough rundown of the structure with modern methods for scientific analysis. A second round of investigation was only just recently done in 2008 to 2011, while cleaning and conservation of other cardinal elevations and turrets were taking place. The second analysis served to support earlier findings in 1996-8 and expanded in extent, form, and dating of post-medieval alterations and repairs. Previous to these studies, White tower was widely believed to have had more or less remained largely intact from the late 11th century, while others argued the tower evolved in scale over time. With these investigations findings, historians can settle several mysteries concerning the Tower's original plans and construction. These studies found that the structure was largely completed by circa 1100 C.E., with its final design being conceived from outset of the project. It was discovered that raising the roofs of the east and west rooms of the second floor by a story was the one lasting major alteration made to the building. Lastly, analysis has found that there was a significant pause in the primary construction, midway through the first floor, seen in changes in material and technique and in the sculptural detail of St. John's Chapel. Work apparently began around 1078 but only completed by 1100, with a break from 1079-83 to 1090-3.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 

==Photography==
 
In order to understand this project's deliverable, a basic background in photographic techniques is necessary. Specifically, I utilize the following five major conventions of photography: 1) leading lines, 2) formal balance, 3) framing, 4) simplicity, and 5) rule of thirds.
 
===Leading Lines===
 
Leading lines are fairly self-explanatory. They are quite simply lines within an image that leads the eye to another point in the image, or occasionally, out of the image. An important aspect of leading lines come from the fact that any definite line within an image can serve as a leading line. If can pair leading lines with a subject that is placed according to the rule of thirds, covered below, the resulting image should be very strong.
<ref>Masoner, L. (2017, March 7). Leading Lines - Definition in Photography. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.thespruce.com/leading-lines-2688488</ref>
 
===Formal Balance===
 
Formal Balance refers to placing equal weight and importance to both sides of an image. Also known as symmetry, this technique suggests balance and proportionality, while asymmetrical balance, known as Informal balance, make images more interesting. Informal balance suggests a more casual, dynamic, and relaxed feeling.
<ref>Bartel, M. (1999). Some Ideas About Composition and Design Elements, Principles, and Visual Effects. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.goshen.edu/art/ed/Compose.htm</ref>
 
===Framing===
 
Framing is the technique of drawing attention to the subject of your image by blocking other parts of the image with something in the scene. Framing establishes the images context, gives a sense of depth, lead the eye toward the image's focal point. Frames in images come in all shapes and sizes, including shooting through overhanging branches, shooting through windows, using tunnels, arches or doorways, etc.
<ref>Rowse, D. (2013, October 04). Framing Your Shots - Photography Composition Technique. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://digital-photography-school.com/framing-your-shots-photography-composition-technique/</ref>
 
===Simplicity===
 
Simplicity, in terms of an image, just means keeping everything not important much less interesting than what’s important in the frame. Especially avoid lines or objects that lead the eye away from the subject.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 
===Rule of Thirds===
 
One of the most common and widely known techniques of photography. By dividing the screen into three sections vertically and horizontally, the four intersections serve as the most effective points focus. positioning a subject on these intersections makes for a more interesting and dynamic image.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
[[File: St-Pauls-Cathedral-is-ref-007.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Reference photograph to juxtapose the abundance of post-modern architecture against Saint Paul's more classical style and age demanding respect. This image utilizes the rule of thirds.<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved May 18, 2017, from http://www.ikoniclifts.co.uk/resources/case-studies</ref>]] 
==Creating and Preserving a Landmark==
In an attempt inform on the influence and presence Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower command as monuments of architectural history, I set about using photography to capture and display visually the various ways these buildings fit into the city of London. Within this, I sought to encapsulate the feeling of reverence towards these structures, each monuments of their respective eras of English history. Saint Paul's Cathedral has retained its current appearance over the past three-hundred forty-two years and White Tower has stood since circa 1100 C.E. With time, naturally comes change. I chose these two unique buildings not simply for their age, but also the perseverance they represent. These buildings stand out against their surroundings, boasting uncommon architectural styles of English Baroque and Norman, respectfully. The goal of this milestone is to answer the question: "How were these structures conserved and what that means?". My answer comes in the form of a comprehensive gallery meant to inform through a deliberate, guided camera lens.
 
My approach to White Tower examines the tower's most striking and defining feature, the structure's age. As a direct result of how old White Tower is and appears, every building surrounding the Tower of London serves as a sharp contrast. When compared to a 12th century fortress, buildings like London's Shard and Gherkin look more like science fiction that post-modern architecture. As London's oldest standing structure, the tower has gone through extensive conservation efforts to keep the building stable and operational. My gallery of the White Tower highlights these realities of the tower, each tackling a specific feature. Moving right from the sketched plans for the Tower of London, the gallery's first picture pins the tower between the distant features of the modern urban environment and the closer lush influence of the Tower of London's trees. Through this use of framing and the rule of thirds, the white tower allows itself to be emphasized as much more of a piece of the landscape, being covered partially by the natural presence of the trees, rather than recent ornament to it. The second picture simply seeks to portray the tower as a monument to itself. With an age harking back to the middle ages, photographic simplicity of the background is used to draw in the view to examine the preserved stone make-up of the tower raw façade. The third picture highlights the contrasting color and geometry between the tower on left and the tower on the right, serving as a perfect example of informal balance. This separation in years, styles, and shape all manifest as the physical distant depicted in this shot. The fourth picture presents the same subject matter but this time juxtaposing the two very directly, both buildings effectively serving as framing for the other. The light, focus, and composition favors the towering figure of London's Shard above the White Tower. However, the entire Tower of London also appears more vast and stable than the Shard's thin frame. By the use of photography techniques, these pictures are able to convey intent alongside the literal material presented. In my gallery for Saint Paul's Cathedral, photographic composure is further emphasized.
 
Throughout my background, I detail the conservation methods and approaches to Saint Paul's over the last hundred years, combating and persevering against dilemmas from pollution to air-raids. The legacy of Old Saint Paul's Cathedral survives by its modern equivalent, serving as a place of community, solidarity, and pride for Londoners. In the pictures below, I set about framing the cathedral, in a very real sense, within its modern context. The first picture following the Old Saint Paul's Cathedral sketches catches the cathedral engulfed and absorbed by its environment. With the dark blue shade of the Thames reflecting the light blue of the sky, the whole shot embodies a cohesive theme. While Saint Paul's signature baroque dome defines the city skyline, it doesn't dominate the entire shot. Room is left through the use of photographic simplicity for other buildings in the distance to mark their shape on the cities outline. Through this, the Saint Paul's Cathedral can be seen as 'one of many.' The next picture serves as a deliberate contrast to the first picture. The sharp handrails of Millennium Bridge serve as leading lines, focusing the viewers' eyes towards that same famous dome with authority. Saint Paul's unique English Baroque architecture and size are emphasized in this shot as the building is framed in an effort to draw in its potential audience, a feature clearly calculated by the bridge's engineers. The gallery's next picture appropriately follows the previous picture's forward momentum. In this closer shot, more direct comparison can be made between the cathedral and the surrounding architecture. The sharp corners and square geometry of the both sides of the shot oppose, and through this further emphasize the uncommon smooth curvature and classical influence that Saint Paul's channels. Like the previous picture, the roofs of the contemporary buildings serve as leading lines, directing focus away from themselves and towards the 342-year-old cathedral sitting comfortable at the center of the shot. The darkness of the shot also helps simplify the framing of Saint Paul's. Departing from the thematic consistency of the first three pictures, the next picture frames Saint Paul's with modern architecting from all sides. The entirety of building seems clearly out of place, standing out as the only white stone building in the shot. Buildings composed of concrete, red brick, glass, and steel dominate the scene's landscape. Metal construction cranes rise on opposite sides of the cathedral while the most striking element of the picture, the overbearing steel beams of the overhead bridge, appears to be completely trap this article of the past in London's urban modernity. Such a use of framing Saint Paul's with dark objects makes Saint Paul's cathedral appear cramped and focused on for its lack of conformity. The next shot resembles the first picture in many ways but provides a wider scope to take in the city as a whole. From the riverside, London's iconic features are set on display upon a level playing-field; that is to say, Saint Paul's, the Leadenhall Building, and the Walkie-Talkie all appear around the same size against the horizon. Almost the exact opposite of the previous picture, this shot showcases Saint Paul's Cathedral as a vital, defining feature of and testament to London as a capital and international city, just as important visually as London's other buildings. Thee rule of thirds is used in this shot to focus on Saint Paul's specifically and the clear sky, clear river combination simplifies the image. The last two pictures of this gallery take a much more personal approach to experiencing Saint Paul's. Before coming to London, I did very little research into the buildings that define the city's skyline. Because of this, I was unsure of what to expect on Wednesday, May 10th, when my group was scheduled to visit Saint Paul's Cathedral. Walking from our flats, my group decided to take a small alley staircase to get to the cathedral quicker. These last two pictures represent how I first saw Saint Paul's Cathedral here in London that Wednesday morning. From the perspective of the alley way, the second-last shot captures much of what the previous pictures have touched on: focused perspective, modern context, unique architecture, London icon, with framing and leading lines directly getting that message across. The last picture in this gallery distinguishes itself with its approach of blatant honesty. The only visible part of Saint Paul's Cathedral is its dome, a pale blue bulb in an otherwise blank sky. The stairs, surrounding buildings, and lampposts all serve to create a frame-within-a-frame, emphasizing the uniqueness of the cathedral against the dark simplistic foreground. The railings as leading lines and the almost pure white sky's simplicity draw the views to a single point. The idea behind the preservation of sites like this around the city bases itself of the reality that humans are programmed to perceive and react to views in very specific ways. Through conservation works to maintain Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, these site are able to persists historically and visually. Conservation and preservation efforts over the past three centuries allowed Christopher Wren's masterpiece survive and be revered to this day. Saint Paul's Cathedral isn't simply significant historically and religiously to London, the building itself is physically significant to defining London's shape and character.
 

==Gallery==
 
===White Tower===
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|''East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London'']]<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref> 
[[File: West Elevation (2010-11) CAD Isolation of differnt stone types Historic Royal Palaces Roland Harris.png|West Elevation of White Tower draw in CAD by Roland Harris]]<ref>Harris, R (2016). Castles and the Anglo-Norman World. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Tower of London Plans.JPG|''Tower of London historical plans''<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 358.</ref>
Image:Between nature and city.JPG|''White Tower framed between its natural and urban setting''
Image:Removed and Proud.JPG|''Significantly removed from its urban context, White Tower stands independent and solitary''
Image:Two different worlds.JPG|''This panorama shot captures the larger urban area to give the impression of two incompatible and incongruous styles on display''
Image:White Tower against the Spire.JPG|''White Tower dwarfed by London's crowning modern centerpiece, the Spire''
</gallery>

===Saint Paul's Cathedral===
[[File: Saint Paul's South Transept.JPG|Saint Paul's South Transept]]
[[File: Photogrammetric Survey of Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall.png|Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall with color coded mark ups of pieces replaced or repaired dating back 300 years.]]<ref>Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 119.</ref> 
 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|''Old Saint Paul's Reference Sketches''<ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>
Image:Riverside Saint Paul Skyline.JPG|''Riverside Saint Paul Skyline''
Image:Destination Saint Paul's2.JPG|''Modern form of the Millennial Bridge framing towards Saint Paul's''
Image:Crowded Small Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's Cathedral crowded by contemporary buildings''
Image:Saint Paul's Crowded by Modernity.JPG|''Saint Paul's surrounded in contemporary architecture''
Image:Part of the Land Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's blending into the London skyline''
Image:Down the Alley.jpg|''Saint Paul's Cathedral's iconic dome highlighted by the alleys narrow features''
Image: Stairway.jpg|''With only the very top of Saint Paul's peaking over the top step, this staircase deliberately channels attention and reverence''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
Architecture is a unique art-form in that it enables architects to instill ideas and ideals into part of the city, defining itself as well as it environment. Because of this, conservation work essentially seeks to preserve the character of the city. Conservation, as a result, defines a city in its attempts to maintain it. London's emphasis on conservation seen in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower reflects an attitude of pride and resilience. A cathedral proudly standing for 342 years in place of the even more ancient Old Saint Paul's Cathedral that stood for centuries before it and a medieval castle nearing the age of a millennium deftly preserved and still in use; these two structures stand as monuments to the dedication and determination behind their collective conservation. Both examples of architecture, Norman and English Baroque, remain nearly unseen in London at such a preserved condition. As these structures demonstrate their value on the London landscape in such a physical way, I sought to capture and examine each site's characteristics and defining features through photography, utilizing photographic techniques to emphasize the ideas each building has come to represent. It was a pleasure to examine London architecture on a scale larger than each building itself, and through the lens of visual analysis.
 

=References=
 
<references />
 
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

London's Architectural Preservation of History

2017-06-22T17:54:05Z

Crfawcett: /* Photography */

=London's Architectural Preservation of History=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = London's Architectual Preservation of History
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:ArchitecturalDiversity.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Perserving a Diverse and Complex City
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This Milestone's aim was to address and analyze how and why London has successfully preserved and upheld its most ancient landmarks, rescuing them from natural erosion and deconstruction and how these means of preservation have changed over time. To this end, I researched the history of Saint Paul's Cathedral and The Tower of London's White Tower through the lens of conservation. These two sites serve as exemplary testaments to architectural conservation's ability to ensure physical buildings themselves along with their own respective legacies. Through the means of photograph, the deliverable component of this milestone takes on a style specifically to showcase contemporary conservation efforts most effectively. What the world sees in the city has become less important than how it's seen, as views and perception become an increasingly defining feature of the modern city.
In summary, this project analyzes Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower directly by reflecting on how centuries of conservation efforts have effect on how these iconic sites of London are seen today.
 

=Introduction=
 
This Milestone studies London's architectural preservation of history through two case studies on Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, the central tower of the Tower of London. My aim is to inform on the modern state and significance of these buildings by largely visual means, rather than literary. Much of history is approached from a literary standpoint, taking the shape of textbooks and periodicals. However, exploring history and its significance to the modern era through literary means alone would be limiting. Though this milestone, my background forms the basis on which my deliverable gallery ought to be observed from. Insight can be drawn from understand both how these buildings came to represent perseverance and what that physically looks like. Utilizing on site photographs taken using a handheld camera, this project is uniquely informed by the experience of living in London. 
This project was inspired by the last pages of chapter four of John Schofield's 'St Paul’s 1897–2013: protection and conservation.' On these pages, Schofield notes that the most recent means of conservation around Saint Paul's Cathedral has been an emphasis on not only maintenance of the cathedral itself, but views of the building. London, like all cities, must maintain a balance between the development of new buildings in the spirit of progressive innovation and the preservation of older buildings that stand as a testament to the city's history. These pressures are only further emphasized by limiting factors on space for urban development within London as a result of London's Green Belt, which is itself contained within the island of Great Britain. With such a long-running, rich English history to maintain, London errs more on the side of conservation. Nowhere is this made more apparent than in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
As long as buildings have existed, methods of preservation or conservation have developed to maintain architectural integrity. The United States' relatively youth means that the oldest landmarks date only several decades older than the country's independence less than three-hundred years ago. England's history dates back to basic agricultural civilization on the English landmass over two-thousand years ago. With much more history to preserve, the city of London today functions as a unique hub of structures ranging in style, construction, and repair. This milestone's central aim requires an in-depth examination of how London's oldest standing structure, the Tower of London's White Tower, and oldest church site, Saint Paul's Cathedral, have managed to adapt, grow and develop as sights of architectural achieve while maintaining a presence in the constantly evolving landscape of city. <ref>Teutonico, J and Fidler, J (1998). ''Time for Change: An Overview of Building-Materials Research for Conservation ofHistoric Structures''. New York: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT)., pg. 45-9.</ref>
 
==Saint Paul's Cathedral==
[[File: Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|Illustration from seventeenth century elevations of Old Saint Paul's. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral as a place of worship has presided as a monument for as long as records of the London area has been in existence. After the Britons fled from invaders in the southern English Isles to London sometime in the 1st century, historical records of London resurface in 604 C.E. These records note the founding of what comes to known as Old Saint Paul's Cathedral by Mellitus, bishop of London. Apart from monastic establishments, Saint Paul's stood as the only place of stately worship through the great fire of 1666 for the people of London. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>Old Saint Paul's stood as the tallest church in all of London, standing at 586 feet and biggest at 72,460 square feet. Tragically, Elizabethan England (1558-1603 C.E.) took a rather careless attitude towards its architectural heritage. As a result, architectural conservation remained nearly unseen. A perfect example of such negligence lie in the example of Old Saint Paul's spire. Struck by a stray lightning bolt, Saint Paul's spire saw no attempt in restoring, what was at the time, London tallest architectural feat. While the roof was at the very least patched, no attempt was ever made to replace such an iconic feature of London's largest church. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226-228.</ref>
The Great Fire of London destroyed about four fifths of London, laying to waste 86 churches and a badly damaged Saint Paul's.
 
Fortunately, with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 came a wealth of talented professionals poised to rebuild and replace the devastation of the Great Fire. [[Christopher Wren]] lied among these professionals, future designer and architect of modern Saint Paul's Cathedral. Building 51 churches and cathedrals across London, Wren's Saint Paul's distinguished itself as the cathedral with the largest undertaking. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>
Wren was afforded such a entirely unique opportunity for urban redefinition, making the city into an 'architectural laboratory' for the development of the protestant parish church. Saint Paul's itself attempted to and succeeded in crystallizing an ideal form of a protestant cathedral.<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (1998). London: the city churches. London: Penguin Group. pg. 25-40.</ref>
 

 
===Early 20th Century and the Great War===
[[File: Zeppelin-over-St-Pauls-Cathedral-London-1930.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral beneath a Zeppelin in 1930. <ref>Edgar Jones, 19 January 2015 - Defence and conflict, First World War, No 10 guest historian series. (n.d.). Air-raid casualties in the First World War. Retrieved June 11, 2017, from https://history.blog.gov.uk/2015/01/19/air-raid-casualties-in-the-first-world-war/</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral's surveyor, Somers Clarke (1897-1906), saw the structures entrance into the 20th century. At the time however, little to no conservation work was done on the cathedral outside of the addition of electric lights in 1899. Mervyn Macartney however, taking over over as surveyor through 1906-31, took as much more active role in conservation of the cathedral. Starting in 1909 with the insertion and installation of hot-water heating system for the building and later installing fire resistance partitions to the cathedrals iconic dome, Macartney started a trend of improvement and change only strengthened in the wake of the first World War. 
To support the war effort, a searchlight was placed on cathedral land to scout for enemy fighters and the cathedral's Golden Gallery was utilized as a practice space for young soldiers to hone skills of signaling. On the 30th September, 1917, in an unfortunate turn-of-events, Saint Paul's Cathedral was struck 'by one of [England's] own shells, which landed on cornice of the south-east corner of the cathedral'. Luckily, the shell failed to cause any highly significant damage to the building's facade or structure. At one point, the cathedral house an 18-pounder gun in the central choir section of the cathedral in 1918. 
While helping country on the warfront, Saint Paul's Cathedral began to tackle its own problems presented with the turn of the second millennium it had seen come to pass. The impending question of the cathedral's stability came to the attention of conservation efforts. Engineer Sir Francis Fox, among other professionals, discuss the legitimacy of the building's structural stability. On the 25th of December, 1924, the District surveyor of the City of London served a 'Dangerous Structures Notice' that would put in motion a clear five-year repair program focused on preserving and insuring the structural integrity of the cathedral. Another concern surrounding Saint Paul's between the two world wars had to do with the height of new office buildings that began to rise close to the cathedral. These buildings represented a threat, as more high-rise office buildings had the potential to obscure, or effectively erase, the famous Saint Paul's dome from the London skyline. Built in 1675 over the previous cathedral of the same name, built 1314, ''?'' which itself was church built over the original Saint Paul's, This Cathedral holds a highly unique space and role in the history of London. As such, reverence beyond the aesthetic beauty of the building was channeled through Godfrey Allen (Surveyor 1931-56) in his proposal of a controlled area surrounding the cathedral. Established to protect and restore important views of the cathedral, the 1938 Saint Paul's Heights Controls made a clear effort to keep Saint Paul's Cathedral relevant in an increasingly modernizing world.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 108-111</ref> 

===World War II Damage===
[[File: Bomb Map around Saint Paul's Cathedral.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|The black circles represent where high explosive bombs fell on or near Saint Paul's Cathedral. Lightly shaded buildings were destroyed by fire or bomb damage.<ref> Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 112</ref>]]
With one world conflict concluded and with the next on its way, Saint Paul's Cathedral prepared itself for a war that would nearly spell its destruction. Various preparations were made to defend against aerial bombardment. Aware of the sheer amount of devastation the evolved bombing of World War II would prove for London, grilles and some carvings from the choir aisles, the Great Model, wood carvings from the library, along with other fittings were all removed from Saint Paul's interior in preparation for the worst. Moved either to crypt or country homes distant from the city, these fittings were seen as valuable enough to remove under threat of enemy retaliation. Lord Nelson, Christopher Wren and the Duke of Wellington's monument were encased in brick in the cathedral's crypt for extra precaution. 
All this effort to preserve what could be preserved in the event of catastrophe proved warranted as twelve to thirteen bombs fell inside a single block radius of the cathedral. Of these, six bombs fell within cathedral property, with two direct strikes to the actual cathedral itself. Remarkably however, the building remained standing after the war had ended. Outside of a few holes in the cathedral ceiling and damage to the exterior, the building as a whole appeared miraculously unharmed after the numerous attacks against London over the course of the war. In 1946, Dean Walter Matthews remarked that there was 'little doubt that Saint Paul's Cathedral's supports to the effect of the blast could not have happened but for the work of repair and consolidation which had so recently been carried out', referring to the five-year conservation efforts carried on a decade prior. Through its miraculous prevailing through war-torn London, Saint Paul’s Cathedral had become a symbol of national survival through the War, adding well to its already considerable stock of symbolic roles.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 111-115</ref> 

===Improvement in the Post-War to Present era===
[[File: Saint Paul's Night River 2.JPG|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral, Shot from Tate Modern. ]]
Following the destruction and devastation met in the 1940s, work to strike a balance between bringing the cathedral into the 21st century and preserving the building as a national landmark has dominated conservation efforts. With this lofty ideal of balance, controversy found a holding in discussions of conservation fairly early on. In 1966, the method approached in cleaning the cathedral's exterior caught criticism from British architectural critic, Ian Nairn. Disgruntled on how the building's upper exterior was cleaned, Nairn complained that "because soot and Portland stone work such a funny magic on each other, St Paul’s should never have been cleaned. The scrubbed parts show a small gain in clarity of detail and an immense loss in personality."<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 117-118</ref> Under Sir Bernard Feilden (Surveyor 1969–77), Saint Paul's gained an elevator, made significant repair to the buildings upper levels, and found itself faced with problems of air pollution and traffic vibration. After a thorough study of the external stonework, Feilden concluded the operation of the Bankside Power Station, built not long after WWII, was responsible for damaging Saint Paul's Cathedral. After shutting down, the Bankside Power Station became modern-day Tate Modern, just across the Thames from Saint Paul's to this day. 
In the following decades, relatively few major conservation works were undertaken until the 1990s. In 1993, Martin Stancliffe (Surveyor 1990-2011) produced a "Quinquennial Report," proposing several immediate and long-term programs of cathedral repair, maintenance and improvement. Most of the major projects of the next two decades were either proposed or hinted at in this Report: stonework repair and cleaning of the exterior, a cleaning of the entire interior, the liturgical reordering and relighting of the interior, and a staged bringing of the entire crypt into public use together with extensive facilities for staff, choir and educational purposes.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 118-119</ref> 
Contemporary movements in modernizing and making the city of London an attractive place to live have encouraged further conservation action. Designated in 2007, St Paul’s Cathedral Conservation Area was established to maintain the character of land uses, building and materials types, open spaces and trees, the use of the area for local and national cultural and political events, ecology and archaeology. Along with this, efforts on behalf of the city have been made add and preserve iconic views of the cathedral. Conservation, and with it a degree of controversy, continues to surround Saint Paul's Cathedral into the present day. In spite of these new challenges Saint Paul's Cathedral is dealt, the building continues to to serve as an exemplary space for gathering, reflection, and beauty. <ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 121-122.</ref>
 

==White Tower==
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref>]]
Located within the fortress of the [[Tower of London]], White Tower presides as one of world's best known castles. Given its name around 1100 C.E., the Tower stands today as the most complete palace in Europe. A brilliant example of Norman architecture, the Tower represents poignant evidence of early 14th century Norman influence in the British Isles. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 44.</ref>Strongly fortified, the square tower perches itself at the center of a defensive work of architecture, evoking stark medieval strength.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64</ref> White Tower stands as London's second largest tower of its age after Colchester tower at four stories connected via angle turrets at the building's corners. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 53-54.</ref>Access to the each floor was possible via the circular north-east turret, with the main entrance on the middle floor, on the south face, still used today.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> Over the years, however, the structure itself has been heavily reconstructed to retain its original shape and structure.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64.</ref>

However, despite the Tower's imposing reputation, the first legitimate systematic investigation of the structure took place only 20 years ago. From 1996 to 1998, White Tower was emptied for new displays and conservation works on the external south elevation, allowing a thorough rundown of the structure with modern methods for scientific analysis. A second round of investigation was only just recently done in 2008 to 2011, while cleaning and conservation of other cardinal elevations and turrets were taking place. The second analysis served to support earlier findings in 1996-8 and expanded in extent, form, and dating of post-medieval alterations and repairs. Previous to these studies, White tower was widely believed to have had more or less remained largely intact from the late 11th century, while others argued the tower evolved in scale over time. With these investigations findings, historians can settle several mysteries concerning the Tower's original plans and construction. These studies found that the structure was largely completed by circa 1100 C.E., with its final design being conceived from outset of the project. It was discovered that raising the roofs of the east and west rooms of the second floor by a story was the one lasting major alteration made to the building. Lastly, analysis has found that there was a significant pause in the primary construction, midway through the first floor, seen in changes in material and technique and in the sculptural detail of St. John's Chapel. Work apparently began around 1078 but only completed by 1100, with a break from 1079-83 to 1090-3.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 

==Photography==
 
In order to understand this project's deliverable, a basic background in photographic techniques is necessary. Specifically, I utilize five major conventions of photography: 1) leading lines, 2) formal balance, 3) framing, 4) simplicity, and 5) rule of thirds.
 
===Leading Lines===
 
Leading lines are fairly self-explanatory. They are quite simply lines within an image that leads the eye to another point in the image, or occasionally, out of the image. An important aspect of leading lines come from the fact that any definite line within an image can serve as a leading line. If can pair leading lines with a subject that is placed according to the rule of thirds, covered below, the resulting image should be very strong.
<ref>Masoner, L. (2017, March 7). Leading Lines - Definition in Photography. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.thespruce.com/leading-lines-2688488</ref>
 
===Formal Balance===
 
Formal Balance refers to placing equal weight and importance to both sides of an image. Also known as symmetry, this technique suggests balance and proportionality, while asymmetrical balance, known as Informal balance, make images more interesting. Informal balance suggests a more casual, dynamic, and relaxed feeling.
<ref>Bartel, M. (1999). Some Ideas About Composition and Design Elements, Principles, and Visual Effects. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.goshen.edu/art/ed/Compose.htm</ref>
 
===Framing===
 
Framing is the technique of drawing attention to the subject of your image by blocking other parts of the image with something in the scene. Framing establishes the images context, gives a sense of depth, lead the eye toward the image's focal point. Frames in images come in all shapes and sizes, including shooting through overhanging branches, shooting through windows, using tunnels, arches or doorways, etc.
<ref>Rowse, D. (2013, October 04). Framing Your Shots - Photography Composition Technique. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://digital-photography-school.com/framing-your-shots-photography-composition-technique/</ref>
 
===Simplicity===
 
Simplicity, in terms of an image, just means keeping everything not important much less interesting than what’s important in the frame. Especially avoid lines or objects that lead the eye away from the subject.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 
===Rule of Thirds===
 
One of the most common and widely known techniques of photography. By dividing the screen into three sections vertically and horizontally, the four intersections serve as the most effective points focus. positioning a subject on these intersections makes for a more interesting and dynamic image.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
[[File: St-Pauls-Cathedral-is-ref-007.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Reference photograph to juxtapose the abundance of post-modern architecture against Saint Paul's more classical style and age demanding respect. This image utilizes the rule of thirds.<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved May 18, 2017, from http://www.ikoniclifts.co.uk/resources/case-studies</ref>]] 
==Creating and Preserving a Landmark==
In an attempt inform on the influence and presence Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower command as monuments of architectural history, I set about using photography to capture and display visually the various ways these buildings fit into the city of London. Within this, I sought to encapsulate the feeling of reverence towards these structures, each monuments of their respective eras of English history. Saint Paul's Cathedral has retained its current appearance over the past three-hundred forty-two years and White Tower has stood since circa 1100 C.E. With time, naturally comes change. I chose these two unique buildings not simply for their age, but also the perseverance they represent. These buildings stand out against their surroundings, boasting uncommon architectural styles of English Baroque and Norman, respectfully. The goal of this milestone is to answer the question: "How were these structures conserved and what that means?". My answer comes in the form of a comprehensive gallery meant to inform through a deliberate, guided camera lens.
 
My approach to White Tower examines the tower's most striking and defining feature, the structure's age. As a direct result of how old White Tower is and appears, every building surrounding the Tower of London serves as a sharp contrast. When compared to a 12th century fortress, buildings like London's Shard and Gherkin look more like science fiction that post-modern architecture. As London's oldest standing structure, the tower has gone through extensive conservation efforts to keep the building stable and operational. My gallery of the White Tower highlights these realities of the tower, each tackling a specific feature. Moving right from the sketched plans for the Tower of London, the gallery's first picture pins the tower between the distant features of the modern urban environment and the closer lush influence of the Tower of London's trees. Through this use of framing and the rule of thirds, the white tower allows itself to be emphasized as much more of a piece of the landscape, being covered partially by the natural presence of the trees, rather than recent ornament to it. The second picture simply seeks to portray the tower as a monument to itself. With an age harking back to the middle ages, photographic simplicity of the background is used to draw in the view to examine the preserved stone make-up of the tower raw façade. The third picture highlights the contrasting color and geometry between the tower on left and the tower on the right, serving as a perfect example of informal balance. This separation in years, styles, and shape all manifest as the physical distant depicted in this shot. The fourth picture presents the same subject matter but this time juxtaposing the two very directly, both buildings effectively serving as framing for the other. The light, focus, and composition favors the towering figure of London's Shard above the White Tower. However, the entire Tower of London also appears more vast and stable than the Shard's thin frame. By the use of photography techniques, these pictures are able to convey intent alongside the literal material presented. In my gallery for Saint Paul's Cathedral, photographic composure is further emphasized.
 
Throughout my background, I detail the conservation methods and approaches to Saint Paul's over the last hundred years, combating and persevering against dilemmas from pollution to air-raids. The legacy of Old Saint Paul's Cathedral survives by its modern equivalent, serving as a place of community, solidarity, and pride for Londoners. In the pictures below, I set about framing the cathedral, in a very real sense, within its modern context. The first picture following the Old Saint Paul's Cathedral sketches catches the cathedral engulfed and absorbed by its environment. With the dark blue shade of the Thames reflecting the light blue of the sky, the whole shot embodies a cohesive theme. While Saint Paul's signature baroque dome defines the city skyline, it doesn't dominate the entire shot. Room is left through the use of photographic simplicity for other buildings in the distance to mark their shape on the cities outline. Through this, the Saint Paul's Cathedral can be seen as 'one of many.' The next picture serves as a deliberate contrast to the first picture. The sharp handrails of Millennium Bridge serve as leading lines, focusing the viewers' eyes towards that same famous dome with authority. Saint Paul's unique English Baroque architecture and size are emphasized in this shot as the building is framed in an effort to draw in its potential audience, a feature clearly calculated by the bridge's engineers. The gallery's next picture appropriately follows the previous picture's forward momentum. In this closer shot, more direct comparison can be made between the cathedral and the surrounding architecture. The sharp corners and square geometry of the both sides of the shot oppose, and through this further emphasize the uncommon smooth curvature and classical influence that Saint Paul's channels. Like the previous picture, the roofs of the contemporary buildings serve as leading lines, directing focus away from themselves and towards the 342-year-old cathedral sitting comfortable at the center of the shot. The darkness of the shot also helps simplify the framing of Saint Paul's. Departing from the thematic consistency of the first three pictures, the next picture frames Saint Paul's with modern architecting from all sides. The entirety of building seems clearly out of place, standing out as the only white stone building in the shot. Buildings composed of concrete, red brick, glass, and steel dominate the scene's landscape. Metal construction cranes rise on opposite sides of the cathedral while the most striking element of the picture, the overbearing steel beams of the overhead bridge, appears to be completely trap this article of the past in London's urban modernity. Such a use of framing Saint Paul's with dark objects makes Saint Paul's cathedral appear cramped and focused on for its lack of conformity. The next shot resembles the first picture in many ways but provides a wider scope to take in the city as a whole. From the riverside, London's iconic features are set on display upon a level playing-field; that is to say, Saint Paul's, the Leadenhall Building, and the Walkie-Talkie all appear around the same size against the horizon. Almost the exact opposite of the previous picture, this shot showcases Saint Paul's Cathedral as a vital, defining feature of and testament to London as a capital and international city, just as important visually as London's other buildings. Thee rule of thirds is used in this shot to focus on Saint Paul's specifically and the clear sky, clear river combination simplifies the image. The last two pictures of this gallery take a much more personal approach to experiencing Saint Paul's. Before coming to London, I did very little research into the buildings that define the city's skyline. Because of this, I was unsure of what to expect on Wednesday, May 10th, when my group was scheduled to visit Saint Paul's Cathedral. Walking from our flats, my group decided to take a small alley staircase to get to the cathedral quicker. These last two pictures represent how I first saw Saint Paul's Cathedral here in London that Wednesday morning. From the perspective of the alley way, the second-last shot captures much of what the previous pictures have touched on: focused perspective, modern context, unique architecture, London icon, with framing and leading lines directly getting that message across. The last picture in this gallery distinguishes itself with its approach of blatant honesty. The only visible part of Saint Paul's Cathedral is its dome, a pale blue bulb in an otherwise blank sky. The stairs, surrounding buildings, and lampposts all serve to create a frame-within-a-frame, emphasizing the uniqueness of the cathedral against the dark simplistic foreground. The railings as leading lines and the almost pure white sky's simplicity draw the views to a single point. The idea behind the preservation of sites like this around the city bases itself of the reality that humans are programmed to perceive and react to views in very specific ways. Through conservation works to maintain Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, these site are able to persists historically and visually. Conservation and preservation efforts over the past three centuries allowed Christopher Wren's masterpiece survive and be revered to this day. Saint Paul's Cathedral isn't simply significant historically and religiously to London, the building itself is physically significant to defining London's shape and character.
 

==Gallery==
 
===White Tower===
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|''East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London'']]<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref> 
[[File: West Elevation (2010-11) CAD Isolation of differnt stone types Historic Royal Palaces Roland Harris.png|West Elevation of White Tower draw in CAD by Roland Harris]]<ref>Harris, R (2016). Castles and the Anglo-Norman World. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Tower of London Plans.JPG|''Tower of London historical plans''<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 358.</ref>
Image:Between nature and city.JPG|''White Tower framed between its natural and urban setting''
Image:Removed and Proud.JPG|''Significantly removed from its urban context, White Tower stands independent and solitary''
Image:Two different worlds.JPG|''This panorama shot captures the larger urban area to give the impression of two incompatible and incongruous styles on display''
Image:White Tower against the Spire.JPG|''White Tower dwarfed by London's crowning modern centerpiece, the Spire''
</gallery>

===Saint Paul's Cathedral===
[[File: Saint Paul's South Transept.JPG|Saint Paul's South Transept]]
[[File: Photogrammetric Survey of Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall.png|Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall with color coded mark ups of pieces replaced or repaired dating back 300 years.]]<ref>Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 119.</ref> 
 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|''Old Saint Paul's Reference Sketches''<ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>
Image:Riverside Saint Paul Skyline.JPG|''Riverside Saint Paul Skyline''
Image:Destination Saint Paul's2.JPG|''Modern form of the Millennial Bridge framing towards Saint Paul's''
Image:Crowded Small Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's Cathedral crowded by contemporary buildings''
Image:Saint Paul's Crowded by Modernity.JPG|''Saint Paul's surrounded in contemporary architecture''
Image:Part of the Land Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's blending into the London skyline''
Image:Down the Alley.jpg|''Saint Paul's Cathedral's iconic dome highlighted by the alleys narrow features''
Image: Stairway.jpg|''With only the very top of Saint Paul's peaking over the top step, this staircase deliberately channels attention and reverence''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
Architecture is a unique art-form in that it enables architects to instill ideas and ideals into part of the city, defining itself as well as it environment. Because of this, conservation work essentially seeks to preserve the character of the city. Conservation, as a result, defines a city in its attempts to maintain it. London's emphasis on conservation seen in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower reflects an attitude of pride and resilience. A cathedral proudly standing for 342 years in place of the even more ancient Old Saint Paul's Cathedral that stood for centuries before it and a medieval castle nearing the age of a millennium deftly preserved and still in use; these two structures stand as monuments to the dedication and determination behind their collective conservation. Both examples of architecture, Norman and English Baroque, remain nearly unseen in London at such a preserved condition. As these structures demonstrate their value on the London landscape in such a physical way, I sought to capture and examine each site's characteristics and defining features through photography, utilizing photographic techniques to emphasize the ideas each building has come to represent. It was a pleasure to examine London architecture on a scale larger than each building itself, and through the lens of visual analysis.
 

=References=
 
<references />
 
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T17:52:10Z

Crfawcett:

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
1) a summary of the aims of your project 
2) your prior experience with humanities and arts courses and disciplines 
3) your major takeaways from the experience 
Clearly state a one-sentence statement that summarizes your main objective for this milestone such as "a comparison of the text of Medieval English choral music to that of the Baroque" or it may be a question such as "to what extent did religion influence Christopher Wren's sense of design?"
 

=Introduction=
Often dismissed in the dichotomy of defining terms of rural and urban, nature's presence within the city finds itself frequently overlooked. As such, London distinguishes itself with a percentage of green space at 33.0%, higher than any major city in the United States. While other cities across the world are known for larger percentages than even London, ... <ref>% of public green space (parks and gardens). (2015). Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.worldcitiescultureforum.com/data/of-public-green-space-parks-and-gardens</ref> in a survey conducted by Greenspace Information for Greater London CIC
 
Describe the essence of this project. 
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hampstead Heath==

<ref>Hampstead Heath. (1882). The British Medical Journal, 2(1124), 102-102. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25260109</ref>

<ref>Preservation Of Hampstead Heath. (1870). The British Medical Journal, 2(508), 339-339. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25219703</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==

<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T17:51:44Z

Crfawcett: /* Section 1: Background */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|caption = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
1) a summary of the aims of your project 
2) your prior experience with humanities and arts courses and disciplines 
3) your major takeaways from the experience 
Clearly state a one-sentence statement that summarizes your main objective for this milestone such as "a comparison of the text of Medieval English choral music to that of the Baroque" or it may be a question such as "to what extent did religion influence Christopher Wren's sense of design?"
 

=Introduction=
Often dismissed in the dichotomy of defining terms of rural and urban, nature's presence within the city finds itself frequently overlooked. As such, London distinguishes itself with a percentage of green space at 33.0%, higher than any major city in the United States. While other cities across the world are known for larger percentages than even London, ... <ref>% of public green space (parks and gardens). (2015). Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.worldcitiescultureforum.com/data/of-public-green-space-parks-and-gardens</ref> in a survey conducted by Greenspace Information for Greater London CIC
 
Describe the essence of this project. 
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 
==Hampstead Heath==

<ref>Hampstead Heath. (1882). The British Medical Journal, 2(1124), 102-102. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25260109</ref>

<ref>Preservation Of Hampstead Heath. (1870). The British Medical Journal, 2(508), 339-339. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25219703</ref>
 
==Hyde Park==

<ref>History and Architecture. (2017). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.royalparks.org.uk/parks/hyde-park/about-hyde-park/history-and-architecture</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T17:45:09Z

Crfawcett:

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|data1 = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project sought to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nations political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding trafalgar square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time,"riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the northern irelands sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such a unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved a ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Directer, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had came in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158 years famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths].. To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art...took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
==Fourth Plinth Gallery==
 
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

London's Architectural Preservation of History

2017-06-22T17:44:40Z

Crfawcett:

=London's Architectural Preservation of History=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = London's Architectual Preservation of History
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:ArchitecturalDiversity.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|data1 = Perserving a Diverse and Complex City
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This Milestone's aim was to address and analyze how and why London has successfully preserved and upheld its most ancient landmarks, rescuing them from natural erosion and deconstruction and how these means of preservation have changed over time. To this end, I researched the history of Saint Paul's Cathedral and The Tower of London's White Tower through the lens of conservation. These two sites serve as exemplary testaments to architectural conservation's ability to ensure physical buildings themselves along with their own respective legacies. Through the means of photograph, the deliverable component of this milestone takes on a style specifically to showcase contemporary conservation efforts most effectively. What the world sees in the city has become less important than how it's seen, as views and perception become an increasingly defining feature of the modern city.
In summary, this project analyzes Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower directly by reflecting on how centuries of conservation efforts have effect on how these iconic sites of London are seen today.
 

=Introduction=
 
This Milestone studies London's architectural preservation of history through two case studies on Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, the central tower of the Tower of London. My aim is to inform on the modern state and significance of these buildings by largely visual means, rather than literary. Much of history is approached from a literary standpoint, taking the shape of textbooks and periodicals. However, exploring history and its significance to the modern era through literary means alone would be limiting. Though this milestone, my background forms the basis on which my deliverable gallery ought to be observed from. Insight can be drawn from understand both how these buildings came to represent perseverance and what that physically looks like. Utilizing on site photographs taken using a handheld camera, this project is uniquely informed by the experience of living in London. 
This project was inspired by the last pages of chapter four of John Schofield's 'St Paul’s 1897–2013: protection and conservation.' On these pages, Schofield notes that the most recent means of conservation around Saint Paul's Cathedral has been an emphasis on not only maintenance of the cathedral itself, but views of the building. London, like all cities, must maintain a balance between the development of new buildings in the spirit of progressive innovation and the preservation of older buildings that stand as a testament to the city's history. These pressures are only further emphasized by limiting factors on space for urban development within London as a result of London's Green Belt, which is itself contained within the island of Great Britain. With such a long-running, rich English history to maintain, London errs more on the side of conservation. Nowhere is this made more apparent than in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
As long as buildings have existed, methods of preservation or conservation have developed to maintain architectural integrity. The United States' relatively youth means that the oldest landmarks date only several decades older than the country's independence less than three-hundred years ago. England's history dates back to basic agricultural civilization on the English landmass over two-thousand years ago. With much more history to preserve, the city of London today functions as a unique hub of structures ranging in style, construction, and repair. This milestone's central aim requires an in-depth examination of how London's oldest standing structure, the Tower of London's White Tower, and oldest church site, Saint Paul's Cathedral, have managed to adapt, grow and develop as sights of architectural achieve while maintaining a presence in the constantly evolving landscape of city. <ref>Teutonico, J and Fidler, J (1998). ''Time for Change: An Overview of Building-Materials Research for Conservation ofHistoric Structures''. New York: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT)., pg. 45-9.</ref>
 
==Saint Paul's Cathedral==
[[File: Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|Illustration from seventeenth century elevations of Old Saint Paul's. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral as a place of worship has presided as a monument for as long as records of the London area has been in existence. After the Britons fled from invaders in the southern English Isles to London sometime in the 1st century, historical records of London resurface in 604 C.E. These records note the founding of what comes to known as Old Saint Paul's Cathedral by Mellitus, bishop of London. Apart from monastic establishments, Saint Paul's stood as the only place of stately worship through the great fire of 1666 for the people of London. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>Old Saint Paul's stood as the tallest church in all of London, standing at 586 feet and biggest at 72,460 square feet. Tragically, Elizabethan England (1558-1603 C.E.) took a rather careless attitude towards its architectural heritage. As a result, architectural conservation remained nearly unseen. A perfect example of such negligence lie in the example of Old Saint Paul's spire. Struck by a stray lightning bolt, Saint Paul's spire saw no attempt in restoring, what was at the time, London tallest architectural feat. While the roof was at the very least patched, no attempt was ever made to replace such an iconic feature of London's largest church. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226-228.</ref>
The Great Fire of London destroyed about four fifths of London, laying to waste 86 churches and a badly damaged Saint Paul's.
 
Fortunately, with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 came a wealth of talented professionals poised to rebuild and replace the devastation of the Great Fire. [[Christopher Wren]] lied among these professionals, future designer and architect of modern Saint Paul's Cathedral. Building 51 churches and cathedrals across London, Wren's Saint Paul's distinguished itself as the cathedral with the largest undertaking. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>
Wren was afforded such a entirely unique opportunity for urban redefinition, making the city into an 'architectural laboratory' for the development of the protestant parish church. Saint Paul's itself attempted to and succeeded in crystallizing an ideal form of a protestant cathedral.<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (1998). London: the city churches. London: Penguin Group. pg. 25-40.</ref>
 

 
===Early 20th Century and the Great War===
[[File: Zeppelin-over-St-Pauls-Cathedral-London-1930.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral beneath a Zeppelin in 1930. <ref>Edgar Jones, 19 January 2015 - Defence and conflict, First World War, No 10 guest historian series. (n.d.). Air-raid casualties in the First World War. Retrieved June 11, 2017, from https://history.blog.gov.uk/2015/01/19/air-raid-casualties-in-the-first-world-war/</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral's surveyor, Somers Clarke (1897-1906), saw the structures entrance into the 20th century. At the time however, little to no conservation work was done on the cathedral outside of the addition of electric lights in 1899. Mervyn Macartney however, taking over over as surveyor through 1906-31, took as much more active role in conservation of the cathedral. Starting in 1909 with the insertion and installation of hot-water heating system for the building and later installing fire resistance partitions to the cathedrals iconic dome, Macartney started a trend of improvement and change only strengthened in the wake of the first World War. 
To support the war effort, a searchlight was placed on cathedral land to scout for enemy fighters and the cathedral's Golden Gallery was utilized as a practice space for young soldiers to hone skills of signaling. On the 30th September, 1917, in an unfortunate turn-of-events, Saint Paul's Cathedral was struck 'by one of [England's] own shells, which landed on cornice of the south-east corner of the cathedral'. Luckily, the shell failed to cause any highly significant damage to the building's facade or structure. At one point, the cathedral house an 18-pounder gun in the central choir section of the cathedral in 1918. 
While helping country on the warfront, Saint Paul's Cathedral began to tackle its own problems presented with the turn of the second millennium it had seen come to pass. The impending question of the cathedral's stability came to the attention of conservation efforts. Engineer Sir Francis Fox, among other professionals, discuss the legitimacy of the building's structural stability. On the 25th of December, 1924, the District surveyor of the City of London served a 'Dangerous Structures Notice' that would put in motion a clear five-year repair program focused on preserving and insuring the structural integrity of the cathedral. Another concern surrounding Saint Paul's between the two world wars had to do with the height of new office buildings that began to rise close to the cathedral. These buildings represented a threat, as more high-rise office buildings had the potential to obscure, or effectively erase, the famous Saint Paul's dome from the London skyline. Built in 1675 over the previous cathedral of the same name, built 1314, ''?'' which itself was church built over the original Saint Paul's, This Cathedral holds a highly unique space and role in the history of London. As such, reverence beyond the aesthetic beauty of the building was channeled through Godfrey Allen (Surveyor 1931-56) in his proposal of a controlled area surrounding the cathedral. Established to protect and restore important views of the cathedral, the 1938 Saint Paul's Heights Controls made a clear effort to keep Saint Paul's Cathedral relevant in an increasingly modernizing world.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 108-111</ref> 

===World War II Damage===
[[File: Bomb Map around Saint Paul's Cathedral.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|The black circles represent where high explosive bombs fell on or near Saint Paul's Cathedral. Lightly shaded buildings were destroyed by fire or bomb damage.<ref> Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 112</ref>]]
With one world conflict concluded and with the next on its way, Saint Paul's Cathedral prepared itself for a war that would nearly spell its destruction. Various preparations were made to defend against aerial bombardment. Aware of the sheer amount of devastation the evolved bombing of World War II would prove for London, grilles and some carvings from the choir aisles, the Great Model, wood carvings from the library, along with other fittings were all removed from Saint Paul's interior in preparation for the worst. Moved either to crypt or country homes distant from the city, these fittings were seen as valuable enough to remove under threat of enemy retaliation. Lord Nelson, Christopher Wren and the Duke of Wellington's monument were encased in brick in the cathedral's crypt for extra precaution. 
All this effort to preserve what could be preserved in the event of catastrophe proved warranted as twelve to thirteen bombs fell inside a single block radius of the cathedral. Of these, six bombs fell within cathedral property, with two direct strikes to the actual cathedral itself. Remarkably however, the building remained standing after the war had ended. Outside of a few holes in the cathedral ceiling and damage to the exterior, the building as a whole appeared miraculously unharmed after the numerous attacks against London over the course of the war. In 1946, Dean Walter Matthews remarked that there was 'little doubt that Saint Paul's Cathedral's supports to the effect of the blast could not have happened but for the work of repair and consolidation which had so recently been carried out', referring to the five-year conservation efforts carried on a decade prior. Through its miraculous prevailing through war-torn London, Saint Paul’s Cathedral had become a symbol of national survival through the War, adding well to its already considerable stock of symbolic roles.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 111-115</ref> 

===Improvement in the Post-War to Present era===
[[File: Saint Paul's Night River 2.JPG|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral, Shot from Tate Modern. ]]
Following the destruction and devastation met in the 1940s, work to strike a balance between bringing the cathedral into the 21st century and preserving the building as a national landmark has dominated conservation efforts. With this lofty ideal of balance, controversy found a holding in discussions of conservation fairly early on. In 1966, the method approached in cleaning the cathedral's exterior caught criticism from British architectural critic, Ian Nairn. Disgruntled on how the building's upper exterior was cleaned, Nairn complained that "because soot and Portland stone work such a funny magic on each other, St Paul’s should never have been cleaned. The scrubbed parts show a small gain in clarity of detail and an immense loss in personality."<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 117-118</ref> Under Sir Bernard Feilden (Surveyor 1969–77), Saint Paul's gained an elevator, made significant repair to the buildings upper levels, and found itself faced with problems of air pollution and traffic vibration. After a thorough study of the external stonework, Feilden concluded the operation of the Bankside Power Station, built not long after WWII, was responsible for damaging Saint Paul's Cathedral. After shutting down, the Bankside Power Station became modern-day Tate Modern, just across the Thames from Saint Paul's to this day. 
In the following decades, relatively few major conservation works were undertaken until the 1990s. In 1993, Martin Stancliffe (Surveyor 1990-2011) produced a "Quinquennial Report," proposing several immediate and long-term programs of cathedral repair, maintenance and improvement. Most of the major projects of the next two decades were either proposed or hinted at in this Report: stonework repair and cleaning of the exterior, a cleaning of the entire interior, the liturgical reordering and relighting of the interior, and a staged bringing of the entire crypt into public use together with extensive facilities for staff, choir and educational purposes.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 118-119</ref> 
Contemporary movements in modernizing and making the city of London an attractive place to live have encouraged further conservation action. Designated in 2007, St Paul’s Cathedral Conservation Area was established to maintain the character of land uses, building and materials types, open spaces and trees, the use of the area for local and national cultural and political events, ecology and archaeology. Along with this, efforts on behalf of the city have been made add and preserve iconic views of the cathedral. Conservation, and with it a degree of controversy, continues to surround Saint Paul's Cathedral into the present day. In spite of these new challenges Saint Paul's Cathedral is dealt, the building continues to to serve as an exemplary space for gathering, reflection, and beauty. <ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 121-122.</ref>
 

==White Tower==
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref>]]
Located within the fortress of the [[Tower of London]], White Tower presides as one of world's best known castles. Given its name around 1100 C.E., the Tower stands today as the most complete palace in Europe. A brilliant example of Norman architecture, the Tower represents poignant evidence of early 14th century Norman influence in the British Isles. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 44.</ref>Strongly fortified, the square tower perches itself at the center of a defensive work of architecture, evoking stark medieval strength.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64</ref> White Tower stands as London's second largest tower of its age after Colchester tower at four stories connected via angle turrets at the building's corners. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 53-54.</ref>Access to the each floor was possible via the circular north-east turret, with the main entrance on the middle floor, on the south face, still used today.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> Over the years, however, the structure itself has been heavily reconstructed to retain its original shape and structure.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64.</ref>

However, despite the Tower's imposing reputation, the first legitimate systematic investigation of the structure took place only 20 years ago. From 1996 to 1998, White Tower was emptied for new displays and conservation works on the external south elevation, allowing a thorough rundown of the structure with modern methods for scientific analysis. A second round of investigation was only just recently done in 2008 to 2011, while cleaning and conservation of other cardinal elevations and turrets were taking place. The second analysis served to support earlier findings in 1996-8 and expanded in extent, form, and dating of post-medieval alterations and repairs. Previous to these studies, White tower was widely believed to have had more or less remained largely intact from the late 11th century, while others argued the tower evolved in scale over time. With these investigations findings, historians can settle several mysteries concerning the Tower's original plans and construction. These studies found that the structure was largely completed by circa 1100 C.E., with its final design being conceived from outset of the project. It was discovered that raising the roofs of the east and west rooms of the second floor by a story was the one lasting major alteration made to the building. Lastly, analysis has found that there was a significant pause in the primary construction, midway through the first floor, seen in changes in material and technique and in the sculptural detail of St. John's Chapel. Work apparently began around 1078 but only completed by 1100, with a break from 1079-83 to 1090-3.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 

==Photography==
 
In order to understand this projects deliverable, a basic background in photographic techniques is necessary. Specifically, I utilize five major conventions of photography: 1) leading lines, 2) formal balance, 3) framing, 4) simplicity, and 5) rule of thirds.
 
===Leading Lines===
 
Leading lines are fairly self-explanatory. They are quite simply lines within an image that leads the eye to another point in the image, or occasionally, out of the image. An important aspect of leading lines come from the fact that any definite line within an image can serve as a leading line. If can pair leading lines with a subject that is placed according to the rule of thirds, covered below, the resulting image should be very strong.
<ref>Masoner, L. (2017, March 7). Leading Lines - Definition in Photography. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.thespruce.com/leading-lines-2688488</ref>
 
===Formal Balance===
 
Formal Balance refers to placing equal weight and importance to both sides of an image. Also known as symmetry, this technique suggests balance and proportionality, while asymmetrical balance, known as Informal balance, make images more interesting. Informal balance suggests a more casual, dynamic, and relaxed feeling.
<ref>Bartel, M. (1999). Some Ideas About Composition and Design Elements, Principles, and Visual Effects. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.goshen.edu/art/ed/Compose.htm</ref>
 
===Framing===
 
Framing is the technique of drawing attention to the subject of your image by blocking other parts of the image with something in the scene. Framing establishes the images context, gives a sense of depth, lead the eye toward the image's focal point. Frames in images come in all shapes and sizes, including shooting through overhanging branches, shooting through windows, using tunnels, arches or doorways, etc.
<ref>Rowse, D. (2013, October 04). Framing Your Shots - Photography Composition Technique. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://digital-photography-school.com/framing-your-shots-photography-composition-technique/</ref>
 
===Simplicity===
 
Simplicity, in terms of an image, just means keeping everything not important much less interesting than what’s important in the frame. Especially avoid lines or objects that lead the eye away from the subject.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 
===Rule of Thirds===
 
One of the most common and widely known techniques of photography. By dividing the screen into three sections vertically and horizontally, the four intersections serve as the most effective points focus. positioning a subject on these intersections makes for a more interesting and dynamic image.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
[[File: St-Pauls-Cathedral-is-ref-007.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Reference photograph to juxtapose the abundance of post-modern architecture against Saint Paul's more classical style and age demanding respect. This image utilizes the rule of thirds.<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved May 18, 2017, from http://www.ikoniclifts.co.uk/resources/case-studies</ref>]] 
==Creating and Preserving a Landmark==
In an attempt inform on the influence and presence Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower command as monuments of architectural history, I set about using photography to capture and display visually the various ways these buildings fit into the city of London. Within this, I sought to encapsulate the feeling of reverence towards these structures, each monuments of their respective eras of English history. Saint Paul's Cathedral has retained its current appearance over the past three-hundred forty-two years and White Tower has stood since circa 1100 C.E. With time, naturally comes change. I chose these two unique buildings not simply for their age, but also the perseverance they represent. These buildings stand out against their surroundings, boasting uncommon architectural styles of English Baroque and Norman, respectfully. The goal of this milestone is to answer the question: "How were these structures conserved and what that means?". My answer comes in the form of a comprehensive gallery meant to inform through a deliberate, guided camera lens.
 
My approach to White Tower examines the tower's most striking and defining feature, the structure's age. As a direct result of how old White Tower is and appears, every building surrounding the Tower of London serves as a sharp contrast. When compared to a 12th century fortress, buildings like London's Shard and Gherkin look more like science fiction that post-modern architecture. As London's oldest standing structure, the tower has gone through extensive conservation efforts to keep the building stable and operational. My gallery of the White Tower highlights these realities of the tower, each tackling a specific feature. Moving right from the sketched plans for the Tower of London, the gallery's first picture pins the tower between the distant features of the modern urban environment and the closer lush influence of the Tower of London's trees. Through this use of framing and the rule of thirds, the white tower allows itself to be emphasized as much more of a piece of the landscape, being covered partially by the natural presence of the trees, rather than recent ornament to it. The second picture simply seeks to portray the tower as a monument to itself. With an age harking back to the middle ages, photographic simplicity of the background is used to draw in the view to examine the preserved stone make-up of the tower raw façade. The third picture highlights the contrasting color and geometry between the tower on left and the tower on the right, serving as a perfect example of informal balance. This separation in years, styles, and shape all manifest as the physical distant depicted in this shot. The fourth picture presents the same subject matter but this time juxtaposing the two very directly, both buildings effectively serving as framing for the other. The light, focus, and composition favors the towering figure of London's Shard above the White Tower. However, the entire Tower of London also appears more vast and stable than the Shard's thin frame. By the use of photography techniques, these pictures are able to convey intent alongside the literal material presented. In my gallery for Saint Paul's Cathedral, photographic composure is further emphasized.
 
Throughout my background, I detail the conservation methods and approaches to Saint Paul's over the last hundred years, combating and persevering against dilemmas from pollution to air-raids. The legacy of Old Saint Paul's Cathedral survives by its modern equivalent, serving as a place of community, solidarity, and pride for Londoners. In the pictures below, I set about framing the cathedral, in a very real sense, within its modern context. The first picture following the Old Saint Paul's Cathedral sketches catches the cathedral engulfed and absorbed by its environment. With the dark blue shade of the Thames reflecting the light blue of the sky, the whole shot embodies a cohesive theme. While Saint Paul's signature baroque dome defines the city skyline, it doesn't dominate the entire shot. Room is left through the use of photographic simplicity for other buildings in the distance to mark their shape on the cities outline. Through this, the Saint Paul's Cathedral can be seen as 'one of many.' The next picture serves as a deliberate contrast to the first picture. The sharp handrails of Millennium Bridge serve as leading lines, focusing the viewers' eyes towards that same famous dome with authority. Saint Paul's unique English Baroque architecture and size are emphasized in this shot as the building is framed in an effort to draw in its potential audience, a feature clearly calculated by the bridge's engineers. The gallery's next picture appropriately follows the previous picture's forward momentum. In this closer shot, more direct comparison can be made between the cathedral and the surrounding architecture. The sharp corners and square geometry of the both sides of the shot oppose, and through this further emphasize the uncommon smooth curvature and classical influence that Saint Paul's channels. Like the previous picture, the roofs of the contemporary buildings serve as leading lines, directing focus away from themselves and towards the 342-year-old cathedral sitting comfortable at the center of the shot. The darkness of the shot also helps simplify the framing of Saint Paul's. Departing from the thematic consistency of the first three pictures, the next picture frames Saint Paul's with modern architecting from all sides. The entirety of building seems clearly out of place, standing out as the only white stone building in the shot. Buildings composed of concrete, red brick, glass, and steel dominate the scene's landscape. Metal construction cranes rise on opposite sides of the cathedral while the most striking element of the picture, the overbearing steel beams of the overhead bridge, appears to be completely trap this article of the past in London's urban modernity. Such a use of framing Saint Paul's with dark objects makes Saint Paul's cathedral appear cramped and focused on for its lack of conformity. The next shot resembles the first picture in many ways but provides a wider scope to take in the city as a whole. From the riverside, London's iconic features are set on display upon a level playing-field; that is to say, Saint Paul's, the Leadenhall Building, and the Walkie-Talkie all appear around the same size against the horizon. Almost the exact opposite of the previous picture, this shot showcases Saint Paul's Cathedral as a vital, defining feature of and testament to London as a capital and international city, just as important visually as London's other buildings. Thee rule of thirds is used in this shot to focus on Saint Paul's specifically and the clear sky, clear river combination simplifies the image. The last two pictures of this gallery take a much more personal approach to experiencing Saint Paul's. Before coming to London, I did very little research into the buildings that define the city's skyline. Because of this, I was unsure of what to expect on Wednesday, May 10th, when my group was scheduled to visit Saint Paul's Cathedral. Walking from our flats, my group decided to take a small alley staircase to get to the cathedral quicker. These last two pictures represent how I first saw Saint Paul's Cathedral here in London that Wednesday morning. From the perspective of the alley way, the second-last shot captures much of what the previous pictures have touched on: focused perspective, modern context, unique architecture, London icon, with framing and leading lines directly getting that message across. The last picture in this gallery distinguishes itself with its approach of blatant honesty. The only visible part of Saint Paul's Cathedral is its dome, a pale blue bulb in an otherwise blank sky. The stairs, surrounding buildings, and lampposts all serve to create a frame-within-a-frame, emphasizing the uniqueness of the cathedral against the dark simplistic foreground. The railings as leading lines and the almost pure white sky's simplicity draw the views to a single point. The idea behind the preservation of sites like this around the city bases itself of the reality that humans are programmed to perceive and react to views in very specific ways. Through conservation works to maintain Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, these site are able to persists historically and visually. Conservation and preservation efforts over the past three centuries allowed Christopher Wren's masterpiece survive and be revered to this day. Saint Paul's Cathedral isn't simply significant historically and religiously to London, the building itself is physically significant to defining London's shape and character.
 

==Gallery==
 
===White Tower===
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|''East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London'']]<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref> 
[[File: West Elevation (2010-11) CAD Isolation of differnt stone types Historic Royal Palaces Roland Harris.png|West Elevation of White Tower draw in CAD by Roland Harris]]<ref>Harris, R (2016). Castles and the Anglo-Norman World. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Tower of London Plans.JPG|''Tower of London historical plans''<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 358.</ref>
Image:Between nature and city.JPG|''White Tower framed between its natural and urban setting''
Image:Removed and Proud.JPG|''Significantly removed from its urban context, White Tower stands independent and solitary''
Image:Two different worlds.JPG|''This panorama shot captures the larger urban area to give the impression of two incompatible and incongruous styles on display''
Image:White Tower against the Spire.JPG|''White Tower dwarfed by London's crowning modern centerpiece, the Spire''
</gallery>

===Saint Paul's Cathedral===
[[File: Saint Paul's South Transept.JPG|Saint Paul's South Transept]]
[[File: Photogrammetric Survey of Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall.png|Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall with color coded mark ups of pieces replaced or repaired dating back 300 years.]]<ref>Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 119.</ref> 
 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|''Old Saint Paul's Reference Sketches''<ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>
Image:Riverside Saint Paul Skyline.JPG|''Riverside Saint Paul Skyline''
Image:Destination Saint Paul's2.JPG|''Modern form of the Millennial Bridge framing towards Saint Paul's''
Image:Crowded Small Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's Cathedral crowded by contemporary buildings''
Image:Saint Paul's Crowded by Modernity.JPG|''Saint Paul's surrounded in contemporary architecture''
Image:Part of the Land Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's blending into the London skyline''
Image:Down the Alley.jpg|''Saint Paul's Cathedral's iconic dome highlighted by the alleys narrow features''
Image: Stairway.jpg|''With only the very top of Saint Paul's peaking over the top step, this staircase deliberately channels attention and reverence''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
Architecture is a unique art-form in that it enables architects to instill ideas and ideals into part of the city, defining itself as well as it environment. Because of this, conservation work essentially seeks to preserve the character of the city. Conservation, as a result, defines a city in its attempts to maintain it. London's emphasis on conservation seen in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower reflects an attitude of pride and resilience. A cathedral proudly standing for 342 years in place of the even more ancient Old Saint Paul's Cathedral that stood for centuries before it and a medieval castle nearing the age of a millennium deftly preserved and still in use; these two structures stand as monuments to the dedication and determination behind their collective conservation. Both examples of architecture, Norman and English Baroque, remain nearly unseen in London at such a preserved condition. As these structures demonstrate their value on the London landscape in such a physical way, I sought to capture and examine each site's characteristics and defining features through photography, utilizing photographic techniques to emphasize the ideas each building has come to represent. It was a pleasure to examine London architecture on a scale larger than each building itself, and through the lens of visual analysis.
 

=References=
 
<references />
 
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T17:39:00Z

Crfawcett: /* External Links */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|caption = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
1) a summary of the aims of your project 
2) your prior experience with humanities and arts courses and disciplines 
3) your major takeaways from the experience 
Clearly state a one-sentence statement that summarizes your main objective for this milestone such as "a comparison of the text of Medieval English choral music to that of the Baroque" or it may be a question such as "to what extent did religion influence Christopher Wren's sense of design?"
 

=Introduction=
Often dismissed in the dichotomy of defining terms of rural and urban, nature's presence within the city finds itself frequently overlooked. As such, London distinguishes itself with a percentage of green space at 33.0%, higher than any major city in the United States. While other cities across the world are known for larger percentages than even London, ... <ref>% of public green space (parks and gardens). (2015). Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.worldcitiescultureforum.com/data/of-public-green-space-parks-and-gardens</ref> in a survey conducted by Greenspace Information for Greater London CIC
 
Describe the essence of this project. 
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
[[http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html users.bathspa.ac.uk]] - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
[[https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map www.london.gov.uk]] - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T17:38:02Z

Crfawcett: /* External Links */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|caption = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
1) a summary of the aims of your project 
2) your prior experience with humanities and arts courses and disciplines 
3) your major takeaways from the experience 
Clearly state a one-sentence statement that summarizes your main objective for this milestone such as "a comparison of the text of Medieval English choral music to that of the Baroque" or it may be a question such as "to what extent did religion influence Christopher Wren's sense of design?"
 

=Introduction=
Often dismissed in the dichotomy of defining terms of rural and urban, nature's presence within the city finds itself frequently overlooked. As such, London distinguishes itself with a percentage of green space at 33.0%, higher than any major city in the United States. While other cities across the world are known for larger percentages than even London, ... <ref>% of public green space (parks and gardens). (2015). Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.worldcitiescultureforum.com/data/of-public-green-space-parks-and-gardens</ref> in a survey conducted by Greenspace Information for Greater London CIC
 
Describe the essence of this project. 
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827 
https://www.london.gov.uk/WHAT-WE-DO/environment/parks-green-spaces-and-biodiversity/green-spaces-map - Map of London's currently operational green spaces around the city
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Green Spaces in London

2017-06-22T17:35:06Z

Crfawcett: /* Section 2: Deliverable */

=Green Spaces in London=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Green Spaces in London
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:image.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|caption = Hyde Park
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
1) a summary of the aims of your project 
2) your prior experience with humanities and arts courses and disciplines 
3) your major takeaways from the experience 
Clearly state a one-sentence statement that summarizes your main objective for this milestone such as "a comparison of the text of Medieval English choral music to that of the Baroque" or it may be a question such as "to what extent did religion influence Christopher Wren's sense of design?"
 

=Introduction=
Often dismissed in the dichotomy of defining terms of rural and urban, nature's presence within the city finds itself frequently overlooked. As such, London distinguishes itself with a percentage of green space at 33.0%, higher than any major city in the United States. While other cities across the world are known for larger percentages than even London, ... <ref>% of public green space (parks and gardens). (2015). Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.worldcitiescultureforum.com/data/of-public-green-space-parks-and-gardens</ref> in a survey conducted by Greenspace Information for Greater London CIC
 
Describe the essence of this project. 
Cover what the project is and who cares in the first two sentences. 
Cover what others have done like it, how your project is different. 
Discuss the extent to which your strategy for completing this project was new to you, or an extension of previous HUA experiences. 
Add in some narrative to describe why you did the "thing that you did", which you'd probably want to do anyway.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
The city of London boasts 'an astonishing sixty seven square miles of parks, commons, community gardens, garden squares, nature reserves and churchyards to be enjoyed'<ref>Billington, J., & Lousada, S. (2003). Introduction. In London's Parks and Gardens (p. ii). London: Frances Lincoln. pg. 1-2.</ref> such a diverse quantity of green spaces within an urban setting comes only as a result of of a long evolutionary process, beginning in the late eighteenth century.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30.</ref>
 
==Pre-Modern Development==
[[Image: Greenwood Map 1827.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Greenwood's Map of 1827.<ref>Fowler, L. (2013, June 7). London in vintage maps. Retrieved June 19, 2017, from http://www.cntraveller.com/photos/photo-galleries/vintage-maps-of-london</ref>]]
Like any aspect of history, nothing occurs in a vacuum. Most prestigious green spaces that would become public space derived from aristocratic and royal residences. Parks on the West End eventually became staples in London's Image as a capital city. Of these parks, Hyde Park would be the earliest one to successfully combine pleasures of the elite, including walking and riding, with more popular recreational use. In the late 1700s, population pressure on older central London began to change the character of a pre-existing green London as
older commercialized pleasure gardens began to disappear alongside earlier forms of natural green space. Several London commons, part of manorial legacies, persevered through.
The green spaces that survived this decline in public green space can be seen on Greenwood's map of 1827, clearly marked in green. at the turn of the nineteenth century, rights of public access had yet to be established in London, however commons such as Hampstead Heath and Epping Forest had become recreational areas simply by customary usage.
 
Following this seeming decline, or at the very least stagnation, of green space, period of innovation took place. Through aristocratic estate developers, villa architects and landscape gardeners, new forms of landscaped open space took shape over the following years. Aristocratic estates would pioneer the convention of 'the square garden', a fairly self-explanitory title. While much of these innovative practices remained private within private estates, the early nineteenth century say a stronger emphasis on public access alongside green space development. In the 1830s, Kew Gardens and botanical and zoological gardens in Regent's Park were opened to the public. Regents Park's layout, planned by John Nash in 1818, successfully adapted the picturesque design features of the aristocratic country park to an urban setting. Nash's protégé, James Pennethorne, contributed largely to the shaping of the park's landscape, emphasizing an English style of landscaped urban park with ornamental water features. Two standout green spaces of this era were Victoria(1845) and Battersea Park (1860), which, as the largest and most costly, exemplified the concept of the people's park.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 30-31.</ref>
 

==Green Spaces' Introduction to the Modern Era==
[[File: Temple Bar, Strand.png|thumb|left|Temple Bar, London Covered in Smog in 1844<ref>Smythe. (1844). Temple Bar, Strand [Photograph]. Metropolitan Prints Collection, Collage: The London Picture Archive, London.</ref>]]
The hundred years following the 1860s saw a significant expansion of green space in London. Through this, much of the ground work on which London built its diverse array of green spaces came into being. These years saw the regulation of commons and the formation of parks, communal gardens and smaller recreational areas across London's urban landscape. The number of commons acquired increased in the 1870s and small open spaces saw proliferation in the 1880 to 1890s. A steady progress of park creation dominated the 1880s to the 1930s. Over this period, metropolitan expansion and changing patterns of recreational activity in the years following World War I, green spaces saw a large diversification.
 
Following the first World War, professional and political focus turned to examine to the future of London and quality of life of Londoners. Persistent atmospheric pollution proved a dominant issue pressing the city, emphasized by repeated episodes of city-wide smoke fogs. Subsequently, a call for exposing Londoners to more air and light came into action. At the same time, popular interest in outside play and keeping fit had grown in the inter-war years, which called for access to playing fields and recreational facilities. Works representative of a new generational awareness of the need for open space provisions with a planned approach to reconstruction of central London, with more effective control over land. A number of planners and environmental reformers held to a common belief in the possibility of raising the tone of society through recreating a sense of community and civic duty, a mentality evolved into London's so-called "Garden City movement." One of such advocates,Sybilla Gurney, described the movement as one that seeks, "to transform the modern congeries of persons into a real community - to make citizens as well as cities - and to restore the interaction of town and country".
 
London's long relationship with urban green spaces aptly defies simplicity. From individual activists to city officials to politicians to the actual landowners, the path by which London as a host of green spaces relied on all these constituents to come to a consensus of what London as a city should and ought to be. An incredible amount of interests were deeply involved in the social construction of London's green spaces: local residents, park and garden users, the staff of parks departments, school authorities, institutions, clubs, and societies, and a varitety of propery interests all had a part to play. This period undoubtedly saw a developing agreement over the value of open spaces, as well as illustrating that unfortunately there was no straightforward consensus but contained problematic elements like saving the London commons. Pressures like this only intensified in the aftermath of WWII.
<ref>Reeder, D. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 3. pg. 31-67.</ref> 

==Modern and Post-Modern Green Spaces==
 
Entering the late 20th century, 1939 to 2000 witnessed a raised concern over London's structure and governance. political and economic issues intersected with environmental issues as problems of open spaces and regional government, social inequality, economic revival, population distribution, and industrial and business location arose. Despite receiving scant priority immediately after WWII, open green spaces remained a strong pillar of social and civic importance to Londoners. public open green spaces were seen as a solution to urban turmoil, with areas being cleared for development of potential green spaces. At this time, green spaces became increasingly seen as a way to a means to contact with nature, improve social cohesion, and even enhance London's reputation as an international capital city. 
Out of this, London, with unexpected growth in the later 20th century, paired with London's peripheral expansion and 1970s appetite for job creation, lead to a blurring of lines between London and the english countryside. Industrial and urban features and techniques took root across England, making the comparison between urban and rural began to evaporate. As a result, PMs went about adopting and providing for 'the more gregarious forms of outdoor recreation,' presenting a variety of solutions in the form of exploiting green spaces. Effort were made to promote defined areas like 'country parks' to contain visitors and tourists. Organized activities were provided for young people in national Park away from the metropolis of London. In 1968 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act focused on containing recreational demands from a increasingly affluent society. By these means, recreational green spaces became clearly distinct from open countryside. Through policy and debate, the 20th century ensured Green open spaces remained unique, however they were no longer primarily valued as a countermeasure to London's problems of crowding and pollution. With this, Open green spaces continued to strike the balance between public and private.
<ref>Garside, P. (2006). The European city and green space: London, Stockholm, Helsinki and St Petersburg, 1850-2000. Aldershot: Ashgate.,ch. 4. pg. 68-92</ref>
 

==Contemporary Green Spaces==
The importance of green spaces in towns and cities has been recognized to varying degrees since the 19th century. The apparent value of green spaces in providing an escape from widespread urban air pollution serving as a major driver in creating new parks and green spaces. Over the last 20 years, a rise in interest has taken shape for quality and quantity of green space in urban areas. Three major factors have contributed to this trend: 1) concern about the decline in the quality of green spaces, due largely to low priority in the political agenda on national and local levels, 2) emphasis on the necessity for more intensive development in urban area, informed by "the hight-density 'compact city' " as the model for European cities and where green spaces fit into that, and 3)Improved evidence base supporting the benefits of urban green space, and environmental social and economic value to society. This upsurge reflected as an increase in research and professional activity in the environmental community. In the United Kingdom, a number of key documents produced in the last decade has led to government recognition of the vital importance of urban parks and green spaces as key components of urban environments. Specifically, the Urban Task Force Report and the Urban White Paper, DETR 2000, pointed to the significance of urban green space on the developing urban environment and urban city life.
<ref>Swanwick, Carys, Nigel Dunnett, and Helen Woolley. "Nature, Role and Value of Green Space in Towns and Cities: An Overview." 29.2 (2003): 94-106. Web. 14 June 2017. pg. 92-105.</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
In this section, provide your contribution, creative element, assessment, or observation with regard to your background research. This could be a new derivative work based on previous research, or some parallel to other events. In this section, describe the relationship between your background review and your deliverable; make the connection between the two clear.
 
==Pamphlet on Green Space in London==
 
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
<references/>
 

=External Links=
http://users.bathspa.ac.uk/greenwood/imagemap.html - Website dedicated to an detailed breakdown analysis of Greenwood's Map of 1827
 

=Image Gallery=

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T17:25:23Z

Crfawcett: /* Abstract */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|caption = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project sought to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nations political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding trafalgar square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time,"riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the northern irelands sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such a unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved a ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Directer, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had came in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158 years famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths].. To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art...took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
==Fourth Plinth Gallery==
 
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T17:25:06Z

Crfawcett: /* Abstract */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|caption = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project to sought to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nations political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding trafalgar square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time,"riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the northern irelands sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such a unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved a ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Directer, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had came in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158 years famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths].. To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art...took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
==Fourth Plinth Gallery==
 
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

London's Architectural Preservation of History

2017-06-22T14:08:14Z

Crfawcett: /* Creating and Preserving a Landmark */

=London's Architectural Preservation of History=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = London's Architectual Preservation of History
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:ArchitecturalDiversity.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|caption = Perserving a Diverse and Complex City
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This Milestone's aim was to address and analyze how and why London has successfully preserved and upheld its most ancient landmarks, rescuing them from natural erosion and deconstruction and how these means of preservation have changed over time. To this end, I researched the history of Saint Paul's Cathedral and The Tower of London's White Tower through the lens of conservation. These two sites serve as exemplary testaments to architectural conservation's ability to ensure physical buildings themselves along with their own respective legacies. Through the means of photograph, the deliverable component of this milestone takes on a style specifically to showcase contemporary conservation efforts most effectively. What the world sees in the city has become less important than how it's seen, as views and perception become an increasingly defining feature of the modern city.
In summary, this project analyzes Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower directly by reflecting on how centuries of conservation efforts have effect on how these iconic sites of London are seen today.
 

=Introduction=
 
This Milestone studies London's architectural preservation of history through two case studies on Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, the central tower of the Tower of London. My aim is to inform on the modern state and significance of these buildings by largely visual means, rather than literary. Much of history is approached from a literary standpoint, taking the shape of textbooks and periodicals. However, exploring history and its significance to the modern era through literary means alone would be limiting. Though this milestone, my background forms the basis on which my deliverable gallery ought to be observed from. Insight can be drawn from understand both how these buildings came to represent perseverance and what that physically looks like. Utilizing on site photographs taken using a handheld camera, this project is uniquely informed by the experience of living in London. 
This project was inspired by the last pages of chapter four of John Schofield's 'St Paul’s 1897–2013: protection and conservation.' On these pages, Schofield notes that the most recent means of conservation around Saint Paul's Cathedral has been an emphasis on not only maintenance of the cathedral itself, but views of the building. London, like all cities, must maintain a balance between the development of new buildings in the spirit of progressive innovation and the preservation of older buildings that stand as a testament to the city's history. These pressures are only further emphasized by limiting factors on space for urban development within London as a result of London's Green Belt, which is itself contained within the island of Great Britain. With such a long-running, rich English history to maintain, London errs more on the side of conservation. Nowhere is this made more apparent than in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
As long as buildings have existed, methods of preservation or conservation have developed to maintain architectural integrity. The United States' relatively youth means that the oldest landmarks date only several decades older than the country's independence less than three-hundred years ago. England's history dates back to basic agricultural civilization on the English landmass over two-thousand years ago. With much more history to preserve, the city of London today functions as a unique hub of structures ranging in style, construction, and repair. This milestone's central aim requires an in-depth examination of how London's oldest standing structure, the Tower of London's White Tower, and oldest church site, Saint Paul's Cathedral, have managed to adapt, grow and develop as sights of architectural achieve while maintaining a presence in the constantly evolving landscape of city. <ref>Teutonico, J and Fidler, J (1998). ''Time for Change: An Overview of Building-Materials Research for Conservation ofHistoric Structures''. New York: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT)., pg. 45-9.</ref>
 
==Saint Paul's Cathedral==
[[File: Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|Illustration from seventeenth century elevations of Old Saint Paul's. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral as a place of worship has presided as a monument for as long as records of the London area has been in existence. After the Britons fled from invaders in the southern English Isles to London sometime in the 1st century, historical records of London resurface in 604 C.E. These records note the founding of what comes to known as Old Saint Paul's Cathedral by Mellitus, bishop of London. Apart from monastic establishments, Saint Paul's stood as the only place of stately worship through the great fire of 1666 for the people of London. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>Old Saint Paul's stood as the tallest church in all of London, standing at 586 feet and biggest at 72,460 square feet. Tragically, Elizabethan England (1558-1603 C.E.) took a rather careless attitude towards its architectural heritage. As a result, architectural conservation remained nearly unseen. A perfect example of such negligence lie in the example of Old Saint Paul's spire. Struck by a stray lightning bolt, Saint Paul's spire saw no attempt in restoring, what was at the time, London tallest architectural feat. While the roof was at the very least patched, no attempt was ever made to replace such an iconic feature of London's largest church. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226-228.</ref>
The Great Fire of London destroyed about four fifths of London, laying to waste 86 churches and a badly damaged Saint Paul's.
 
Fortunately, with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 came a wealth of talented professionals poised to rebuild and replace the devastation of the Great Fire. [[Christopher Wren]] lied among these professionals, future designer and architect of modern Saint Paul's Cathedral. Building 51 churches and cathedrals across London, Wren's Saint Paul's distinguished itself as the cathedral with the largest undertaking. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>
Wren was afforded such a entirely unique opportunity for urban redefinition, making the city into an 'architectural laboratory' for the development of the protestant parish church. Saint Paul's itself attempted to and succeeded in crystallizing an ideal form of a protestant cathedral.<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (1998). London: the city churches. London: Penguin Group. pg. 25-40.</ref>
 

 
===Early 20th Century and the Great War===
[[File: Zeppelin-over-St-Pauls-Cathedral-London-1930.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral beneath a Zeppelin in 1930. <ref>Edgar Jones, 19 January 2015 - Defence and conflict, First World War, No 10 guest historian series. (n.d.). Air-raid casualties in the First World War. Retrieved June 11, 2017, from https://history.blog.gov.uk/2015/01/19/air-raid-casualties-in-the-first-world-war/</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral's surveyor, Somers Clarke (1897-1906), saw the structures entrance into the 20th century. At the time however, little to no conservation work was done on the cathedral outside of the addition of electric lights in 1899. Mervyn Macartney however, taking over over as surveyor through 1906-31, took as much more active role in conservation of the cathedral. Starting in 1909 with the insertion and installation of hot-water heating system for the building and later installing fire resistance partitions to the cathedrals iconic dome, Macartney started a trend of improvement and change only strengthened in the wake of the first World War. 
To support the war effort, a searchlight was placed on cathedral land to scout for enemy fighters and the cathedral's Golden Gallery was utilized as a practice space for young soldiers to hone skills of signaling. On the 30th September, 1917, in an unfortunate turn-of-events, Saint Paul's Cathedral was struck 'by one of [England's] own shells, which landed on cornice of the south-east corner of the cathedral'. Luckily, the shell failed to cause any highly significant damage to the building's facade or structure. At one point, the cathedral house an 18-pounder gun in the central choir section of the cathedral in 1918. 
While helping country on the warfront, Saint Paul's Cathedral began to tackle its own problems presented with the turn of the second millennium it had seen come to pass. The impending question of the cathedral's stability came to the attention of conservation efforts. Engineer Sir Francis Fox, among other professionals, discuss the legitimacy of the building's structural stability. On the 25th of December, 1924, the District surveyor of the City of London served a 'Dangerous Structures Notice' that would put in motion a clear five-year repair program focused on preserving and insuring the structural integrity of the cathedral. Another concern surrounding Saint Paul's between the two world wars had to do with the height of new office buildings that began to rise close to the cathedral. These buildings represented a threat, as more high-rise office buildings had the potential to obscure, or effectively erase, the famous Saint Paul's dome from the London skyline. Built in 1675 over the previous cathedral of the same name, built 1314, ''?'' which itself was church built over the original Saint Paul's, This Cathedral holds a highly unique space and role in the history of London. As such, reverence beyond the aesthetic beauty of the building was channeled through Godfrey Allen (Surveyor 1931-56) in his proposal of a controlled area surrounding the cathedral. Established to protect and restore important views of the cathedral, the 1938 Saint Paul's Heights Controls made a clear effort to keep Saint Paul's Cathedral relevant in an increasingly modernizing world.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 108-111</ref> 

===World War II Damage===
[[File: Bomb Map around Saint Paul's Cathedral.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|The black circles represent where high explosive bombs fell on or near Saint Paul's Cathedral. Lightly shaded buildings were destroyed by fire or bomb damage.<ref> Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 112</ref>]]
With one world conflict concluded and with the next on its way, Saint Paul's Cathedral prepared itself for a war that would nearly spell its destruction. Various preparations were made to defend against aerial bombardment. Aware of the sheer amount of devastation the evolved bombing of World War II would prove for London, grilles and some carvings from the choir aisles, the Great Model, wood carvings from the library, along with other fittings were all removed from Saint Paul's interior in preparation for the worst. Moved either to crypt or country homes distant from the city, these fittings were seen as valuable enough to remove under threat of enemy retaliation. Lord Nelson, Christopher Wren and the Duke of Wellington's monument were encased in brick in the cathedral's crypt for extra precaution. 
All this effort to preserve what could be preserved in the event of catastrophe proved warranted as twelve to thirteen bombs fell inside a single block radius of the cathedral. Of these, six bombs fell within cathedral property, with two direct strikes to the actual cathedral itself. Remarkably however, the building remained standing after the war had ended. Outside of a few holes in the cathedral ceiling and damage to the exterior, the building as a whole appeared miraculously unharmed after the numerous attacks against London over the course of the war. In 1946, Dean Walter Matthews remarked that there was 'little doubt that Saint Paul's Cathedral's supports to the effect of the blast could not have happened but for the work of repair and consolidation which had so recently been carried out', referring to the five-year conservation efforts carried on a decade prior. Through its miraculous prevailing through war-torn London, Saint Paul’s Cathedral had become a symbol of national survival through the War, adding well to its already considerable stock of symbolic roles.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 111-115</ref> 

===Improvement in the Post-War to Present era===
[[File: Saint Paul's Night River 2.JPG|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral, Shot from Tate Modern. ]]
Following the destruction and devastation met in the 1940s, work to strike a balance between bringing the cathedral into the 21st century and preserving the building as a national landmark has dominated conservation efforts. With this lofty ideal of balance, controversy found a holding in discussions of conservation fairly early on. In 1966, the method approached in cleaning the cathedral's exterior caught criticism from British architectural critic, Ian Nairn. Disgruntled on how the building's upper exterior was cleaned, Nairn complained that "because soot and Portland stone work such a funny magic on each other, St Paul’s should never have been cleaned. The scrubbed parts show a small gain in clarity of detail and an immense loss in personality."<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 117-118</ref> Under Sir Bernard Feilden (Surveyor 1969–77), Saint Paul's gained an elevator, made significant repair to the buildings upper levels, and found itself faced with problems of air pollution and traffic vibration. After a thorough study of the external stonework, Feilden concluded the operation of the Bankside Power Station, built not long after WWII, was responsible for damaging Saint Paul's Cathedral. After shutting down, the Bankside Power Station became modern-day Tate Modern, just across the Thames from Saint Paul's to this day. 
In the following decades, relatively few major conservation works were undertaken until the 1990s. In 1993, Martin Stancliffe (Surveyor 1990-2011) produced a "Quinquennial Report," proposing several immediate and long-term programs of cathedral repair, maintenance and improvement. Most of the major projects of the next two decades were either proposed or hinted at in this Report: stonework repair and cleaning of the exterior, a cleaning of the entire interior, the liturgical reordering and relighting of the interior, and a staged bringing of the entire crypt into public use together with extensive facilities for staff, choir and educational purposes.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 118-119</ref> 
Contemporary movements in modernizing and making the city of London an attractive place to live have encouraged further conservation action. Designated in 2007, St Paul’s Cathedral Conservation Area was established to maintain the character of land uses, building and materials types, open spaces and trees, the use of the area for local and national cultural and political events, ecology and archaeology. Along with this, efforts on behalf of the city have been made add and preserve iconic views of the cathedral. Conservation, and with it a degree of controversy, continues to surround Saint Paul's Cathedral into the present day. In spite of these new challenges Saint Paul's Cathedral is dealt, the building continues to to serve as an exemplary space for gathering, reflection, and beauty. <ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 121-122.</ref>
 

==White Tower==
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref>]]
Located within the fortress of the [[Tower of London]], White Tower presides as one of world's best known castles. Given its name around 1100 C.E., the Tower stands today as the most complete palace in Europe. A brilliant example of Norman architecture, the Tower represents poignant evidence of early 14th century Norman influence in the British Isles. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 44.</ref>Strongly fortified, the square tower perches itself at the center of a defensive work of architecture, evoking stark medieval strength.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64</ref> White Tower stands as London's second largest tower of its age after Colchester tower at four stories connected via angle turrets at the building's corners. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 53-54.</ref>Access to the each floor was possible via the circular north-east turret, with the main entrance on the middle floor, on the south face, still used today.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> Over the years, however, the structure itself has been heavily reconstructed to retain its original shape and structure.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64.</ref>

However, despite the Tower's imposing reputation, the first legitimate systematic investigation of the structure took place only 20 years ago. From 1996 to 1998, White Tower was emptied for new displays and conservation works on the external south elevation, allowing a thorough rundown of the structure with modern methods for scientific analysis. A second round of investigation was only just recently done in 2008 to 2011, while cleaning and conservation of other cardinal elevations and turrets were taking place. The second analysis served to support earlier findings in 1996-8 and expanded in extent, form, and dating of post-medieval alterations and repairs. Previous to these studies, White tower was widely believed to have had more or less remained largely intact from the late 11th century, while others argued the tower evolved in scale over time. With these investigations findings, historians can settle several mysteries concerning the Tower's original plans and construction. These studies found that the structure was largely completed by circa 1100 C.E., with its final design being conceived from outset of the project. It was discovered that raising the roofs of the east and west rooms of the second floor by a story was the one lasting major alteration made to the building. Lastly, analysis has found that there was a significant pause in the primary construction, midway through the first floor, seen in changes in material and technique and in the sculptural detail of St. John's Chapel. Work apparently began around 1078 but only completed by 1100, with a break from 1079-83 to 1090-3.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 

==Photography==
 
In order to understand this projects deliverable, a basic background in photographic techniques is necessary. Specifically, I utilize five major conventions of photography: 1) leading lines, 2) formal balance, 3) framing, 4) simplicity, and 5) rule of thirds.
 
===Leading Lines===
 
Leading lines are fairly self-explanatory. They are quite simply lines within an image that leads the eye to another point in the image, or occasionally, out of the image. An important aspect of leading lines come from the fact that any definite line within an image can serve as a leading line. If can pair leading lines with a subject that is placed according to the rule of thirds, covered below, the resulting image should be very strong.
<ref>Masoner, L. (2017, March 7). Leading Lines - Definition in Photography. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.thespruce.com/leading-lines-2688488</ref>
 
===Formal Balance===
 
Formal Balance refers to placing equal weight and importance to both sides of an image. Also known as symmetry, this technique suggests balance and proportionality, while asymmetrical balance, known as Informal balance, make images more interesting. Informal balance suggests a more casual, dynamic, and relaxed feeling.
<ref>Bartel, M. (1999). Some Ideas About Composition and Design Elements, Principles, and Visual Effects. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.goshen.edu/art/ed/Compose.htm</ref>
 
===Framing===
 
Framing is the technique of drawing attention to the subject of your image by blocking other parts of the image with something in the scene. Framing establishes the images context, gives a sense of depth, lead the eye toward the image's focal point. Frames in images come in all shapes and sizes, including shooting through overhanging branches, shooting through windows, using tunnels, arches or doorways, etc.
<ref>Rowse, D. (2013, October 04). Framing Your Shots - Photography Composition Technique. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://digital-photography-school.com/framing-your-shots-photography-composition-technique/</ref>
 
===Simplicity===
 
Simplicity, in terms of an image, just means keeping everything not important much less interesting than what’s important in the frame. Especially avoid lines or objects that lead the eye away from the subject.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 
===Rule of Thirds===
 
One of the most common and widely known techniques of photography. By dividing the screen into three sections vertically and horizontally, the four intersections serve as the most effective points focus. positioning a subject on these intersections makes for a more interesting and dynamic image.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
[[File: St-Pauls-Cathedral-is-ref-007.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Reference photograph to juxtapose the abundance of post-modern architecture against Saint Paul's more classical style and age demanding respect. This image utilizes the rule of thirds.<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved May 18, 2017, from http://www.ikoniclifts.co.uk/resources/case-studies</ref>]] 
==Creating and Preserving a Landmark==
In an attempt inform on the influence and presence Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower command as monuments of architectural history, I set about using photography to capture and display visually the various ways these buildings fit into the city of London. Within this, I sought to encapsulate the feeling of reverence towards these structures, each monuments of their respective eras of English history. Saint Paul's Cathedral has retained its current appearance over the past three-hundred forty-two years and White Tower has stood since circa 1100 C.E. With time, naturally comes change. I chose these two unique buildings not simply for their age, but also the perseverance they represent. These buildings stand out against their surroundings, boasting uncommon architectural styles of English Baroque and Norman, respectfully. The goal of this milestone is to answer the question: "How were these structures conserved and what that means?". My answer comes in the form of a comprehensive gallery meant to inform through a deliberate, guided camera lens.
 
My approach to White Tower examines the tower's most striking and defining feature, the structure's age. As a direct result of how old White Tower is and appears, every building surrounding the Tower of London serves as a sharp contrast. When compared to a 12th century fortress, buildings like London's Shard and Gherkin look more like science fiction that post-modern architecture. As London's oldest standing structure, the tower has gone through extensive conservation efforts to keep the building stable and operational. My gallery of the White Tower highlights these realities of the tower, each tackling a specific feature. Moving right from the sketched plans for the Tower of London, the gallery's first picture pins the tower between the distant features of the modern urban environment and the closer lush influence of the Tower of London's trees. Through this use of framing and the rule of thirds, the white tower allows itself to be emphasized as much more of a piece of the landscape, being covered partially by the natural presence of the trees, rather than recent ornament to it. The second picture simply seeks to portray the tower as a monument to itself. With an age harking back to the middle ages, photographic simplicity of the background is used to draw in the view to examine the preserved stone make-up of the tower raw façade. The third picture highlights the contrasting color and geometry between the tower on left and the tower on the right, serving as a perfect example of informal balance. This separation in years, styles, and shape all manifest as the physical distant depicted in this shot. The fourth picture presents the same subject matter but this time juxtaposing the two very directly, both buildings effectively serving as framing for the other. The light, focus, and composition favors the towering figure of London's Shard above the White Tower. However, the entire Tower of London also appears more vast and stable than the Shard's thin frame. By the use of photography techniques, these pictures are able to convey intent alongside the literal material presented. In my gallery for Saint Paul's Cathedral, photographic composure is further emphasized.
 
Throughout my background, I detail the conservation methods and approaches to Saint Paul's over the last hundred years, combating and persevering against dilemmas from pollution to air-raids. The legacy of Old Saint Paul's Cathedral survives by its modern equivalent, serving as a place of community, solidarity, and pride for Londoners. In the pictures below, I set about framing the cathedral, in a very real sense, within its modern context. The first picture following the Old Saint Paul's Cathedral sketches catches the cathedral engulfed and absorbed by its environment. With the dark blue shade of the Thames reflecting the light blue of the sky, the whole shot embodies a cohesive theme. While Saint Paul's signature baroque dome defines the city skyline, it doesn't dominate the entire shot. Room is left through the use of photographic simplicity for other buildings in the distance to mark their shape on the cities outline. Through this, the Saint Paul's Cathedral can be seen as 'one of many.' The next picture serves as a deliberate contrast to the first picture. The sharp handrails of Millennium Bridge serve as leading lines, focusing the viewers' eyes towards that same famous dome with authority. Saint Paul's unique English Baroque architecture and size are emphasized in this shot as the building is framed in an effort to draw in its potential audience, a feature clearly calculated by the bridge's engineers. The gallery's next picture appropriately follows the previous picture's forward momentum. In this closer shot, more direct comparison can be made between the cathedral and the surrounding architecture. The sharp corners and square geometry of the both sides of the shot oppose, and through this further emphasize the uncommon smooth curvature and classical influence that Saint Paul's channels. Like the previous picture, the roofs of the contemporary buildings serve as leading lines, directing focus away from themselves and towards the 342-year-old cathedral sitting comfortable at the center of the shot. The darkness of the shot also helps simplify the framing of Saint Paul's. Departing from the thematic consistency of the first three pictures, the next picture frames Saint Paul's with modern architecting from all sides. The entirety of building seems clearly out of place, standing out as the only white stone building in the shot. Buildings composed of concrete, red brick, glass, and steel dominate the scene's landscape. Metal construction cranes rise on opposite sides of the cathedral while the most striking element of the picture, the overbearing steel beams of the overhead bridge, appears to be completely trap this article of the past in London's urban modernity. Such a use of framing Saint Paul's with dark objects makes Saint Paul's cathedral appear cramped and focused on for its lack of conformity. The next shot resembles the first picture in many ways but provides a wider scope to take in the city as a whole. From the riverside, London's iconic features are set on display upon a level playing-field; that is to say, Saint Paul's, the Leadenhall Building, and the Walkie-Talkie all appear around the same size against the horizon. Almost the exact opposite of the previous picture, this shot showcases Saint Paul's Cathedral as a vital, defining feature of and testament to London as a capital and international city, just as important visually as London's other buildings. Thee rule of thirds is used in this shot to focus on Saint Paul's specifically and the clear sky, clear river combination simplifies the image. The last two pictures of this gallery take a much more personal approach to experiencing Saint Paul's. Before coming to London, I did very little research into the buildings that define the city's skyline. Because of this, I was unsure of what to expect on Wednesday, May 10th, when my group was scheduled to visit Saint Paul's Cathedral. Walking from our flats, my group decided to take a small alley staircase to get to the cathedral quicker. These last two pictures represent how I first saw Saint Paul's Cathedral here in London that Wednesday morning. From the perspective of the alley way, the second-last shot captures much of what the previous pictures have touched on: focused perspective, modern context, unique architecture, London icon, with framing and leading lines directly getting that message across. The last picture in this gallery distinguishes itself with its approach of blatant honesty. The only visible part of Saint Paul's Cathedral is its dome, a pale blue bulb in an otherwise blank sky. The stairs, surrounding buildings, and lampposts all serve to create a frame-within-a-frame, emphasizing the uniqueness of the cathedral against the dark simplistic foreground. The railings as leading lines and the almost pure white sky's simplicity draw the views to a single point. The idea behind the preservation of sites like this around the city bases itself of the reality that humans are programmed to perceive and react to views in very specific ways. Through conservation works to maintain Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, these site are able to persists historically and visually. Conservation and preservation efforts over the past three centuries allowed Christopher Wren's masterpiece survive and be revered to this day. Saint Paul's Cathedral isn't simply significant historically and religiously to London, the building itself is physically significant to defining London's shape and character.
 

==Gallery==
 
===White Tower===
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|''East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London'']]<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref> 
[[File: West Elevation (2010-11) CAD Isolation of differnt stone types Historic Royal Palaces Roland Harris.png|West Elevation of White Tower draw in CAD by Roland Harris]]<ref>Harris, R (2016). Castles and the Anglo-Norman World. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Tower of London Plans.JPG|''Tower of London historical plans''<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 358.</ref>
Image:Between nature and city.JPG|''White Tower framed between its natural and urban setting''
Image:Removed and Proud.JPG|''Significantly removed from its urban context, White Tower stands independent and solitary''
Image:Two different worlds.JPG|''This panorama shot captures the larger urban area to give the impression of two incompatible and incongruous styles on display''
Image:White Tower against the Spire.JPG|''White Tower dwarfed by London's crowning modern centerpiece, the Spire''
</gallery>

===Saint Paul's Cathedral===
[[File: Saint Paul's South Transept.JPG|Saint Paul's South Transept]]
[[File: Photogrammetric Survey of Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall.png|Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall with color coded mark ups of pieces replaced or repaired dating back 300 years.]]<ref>Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 119.</ref> 
 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|''Old Saint Paul's Reference Sketches''<ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>
Image:Riverside Saint Paul Skyline.JPG|''Riverside Saint Paul Skyline''
Image:Destination Saint Paul's2.JPG|''Modern form of the Millennial Bridge framing towards Saint Paul's''
Image:Crowded Small Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's Cathedral crowded by contemporary buildings''
Image:Saint Paul's Crowded by Modernity.JPG|''Saint Paul's surrounded in contemporary architecture''
Image:Part of the Land Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's blending into the London skyline''
Image:Down the Alley.jpg|''Saint Paul's Cathedral's iconic dome highlighted by the alleys narrow features''
Image: Stairway.jpg|''With only the very top of Saint Paul's peaking over the top step, this staircase deliberately channels attention and reverence''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
Architecture is a unique art-form in that it enables architects to instill ideas and ideals into part of the city, defining itself as well as it environment. Because of this, conservation work essentially seeks to preserve the character of the city. Conservation, as a result, defines a city in its attempts to maintain it. London's emphasis on conservation seen in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower reflects an attitude of pride and resilience. A cathedral proudly standing for 342 years in place of the even more ancient Old Saint Paul's Cathedral that stood for centuries before it and a medieval castle nearing the age of a millennium deftly preserved and still in use; these two structures stand as monuments to the dedication and determination behind their collective conservation. Both examples of architecture, Norman and English Baroque, remain nearly unseen in London at such a preserved condition. As these structures demonstrate their value on the London landscape in such a physical way, I sought to capture and examine each site's characteristics and defining features through photography, utilizing photographic techniques to emphasize the ideas each building has come to represent. It was a pleasure to examine London architecture on a scale larger than each building itself, and through the lens of visual analysis.
 

=References=
 
<references />
 
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

London's Architectural Preservation of History

2017-06-22T13:38:04Z

Crfawcett: /* Section 2: Deliverable */

=London's Architectural Preservation of History=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = London's Architectual Preservation of History
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:ArchitecturalDiversity.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|caption = Perserving a Diverse and Complex City
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This Milestone's aim was to address and analyze how and why London has successfully preserved and upheld its most ancient landmarks, rescuing them from natural erosion and deconstruction and how these means of preservation have changed over time. To this end, I researched the history of Saint Paul's Cathedral and The Tower of London's White Tower through the lens of conservation. These two sites serve as exemplary testaments to architectural conservation's ability to ensure physical buildings themselves along with their own respective legacies. Through the means of photograph, the deliverable component of this milestone takes on a style specifically to showcase contemporary conservation efforts most effectively. What the world sees in the city has become less important than how it's seen, as views and perception become an increasingly defining feature of the modern city.
In summary, this project analyzes Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower directly by reflecting on how centuries of conservation efforts have effect on how these iconic sites of London are seen today.
 

=Introduction=
 
This Milestone studies London's architectural preservation of history through two case studies on Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, the central tower of the Tower of London. My aim is to inform on the modern state and significance of these buildings by largely visual means, rather than literary. Much of history is approached from a literary standpoint, taking the shape of textbooks and periodicals. However, exploring history and its significance to the modern era through literary means alone would be limiting. Though this milestone, my background forms the basis on which my deliverable gallery ought to be observed from. Insight can be drawn from understand both how these buildings came to represent perseverance and what that physically looks like. Utilizing on site photographs taken using a handheld camera, this project is uniquely informed by the experience of living in London. 
This project was inspired by the last pages of chapter four of John Schofield's 'St Paul’s 1897–2013: protection and conservation.' On these pages, Schofield notes that the most recent means of conservation around Saint Paul's Cathedral has been an emphasis on not only maintenance of the cathedral itself, but views of the building. London, like all cities, must maintain a balance between the development of new buildings in the spirit of progressive innovation and the preservation of older buildings that stand as a testament to the city's history. These pressures are only further emphasized by limiting factors on space for urban development within London as a result of London's Green Belt, which is itself contained within the island of Great Britain. With such a long-running, rich English history to maintain, London errs more on the side of conservation. Nowhere is this made more apparent than in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
As long as buildings have existed, methods of preservation or conservation have developed to maintain architectural integrity. The United States' relatively youth means that the oldest landmarks date only several decades older than the country's independence less than three-hundred years ago. England's history dates back to basic agricultural civilization on the English landmass over two-thousand years ago. With much more history to preserve, the city of London today functions as a unique hub of structures ranging in style, construction, and repair. This milestone's central aim requires an in-depth examination of how London's oldest standing structure, the Tower of London's White Tower, and oldest church site, Saint Paul's Cathedral, have managed to adapt, grow and develop as sights of architectural achieve while maintaining a presence in the constantly evolving landscape of city. <ref>Teutonico, J and Fidler, J (1998). ''Time for Change: An Overview of Building-Materials Research for Conservation ofHistoric Structures''. New York: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT)., pg. 45-9.</ref>
 
==Saint Paul's Cathedral==
[[File: Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|Illustration from seventeenth century elevations of Old Saint Paul's. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral as a place of worship has presided as a monument for as long as records of the London area has been in existence. After the Britons fled from invaders in the southern English Isles to London sometime in the 1st century, historical records of London resurface in 604 C.E. These records note the founding of what comes to known as Old Saint Paul's Cathedral by Mellitus, bishop of London. Apart from monastic establishments, Saint Paul's stood as the only place of stately worship through the great fire of 1666 for the people of London. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>Old Saint Paul's stood as the tallest church in all of London, standing at 586 feet and biggest at 72,460 square feet. Tragically, Elizabethan England (1558-1603 C.E.) took a rather careless attitude towards its architectural heritage. As a result, architectural conservation remained nearly unseen. A perfect example of such negligence lie in the example of Old Saint Paul's spire. Struck by a stray lightning bolt, Saint Paul's spire saw no attempt in restoring, what was at the time, London tallest architectural feat. While the roof was at the very least patched, no attempt was ever made to replace such an iconic feature of London's largest church. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226-228.</ref>
The Great Fire of London destroyed about four fifths of London, laying to waste 86 churches and a badly damaged Saint Paul's.
 
Fortunately, with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 came a wealth of talented professionals poised to rebuild and replace the devastation of the Great Fire. [[Christopher Wren]] lied among these professionals, future designer and architect of modern Saint Paul's Cathedral. Building 51 churches and cathedrals across London, Wren's Saint Paul's distinguished itself as the cathedral with the largest undertaking. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>
Wren was afforded such a entirely unique opportunity for urban redefinition, making the city into an 'architectural laboratory' for the development of the protestant parish church. Saint Paul's itself attempted to and succeeded in crystallizing an ideal form of a protestant cathedral.<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (1998). London: the city churches. London: Penguin Group. pg. 25-40.</ref>
 

 
===Early 20th Century and the Great War===
[[File: Zeppelin-over-St-Pauls-Cathedral-London-1930.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral beneath a Zeppelin in 1930. <ref>Edgar Jones, 19 January 2015 - Defence and conflict, First World War, No 10 guest historian series. (n.d.). Air-raid casualties in the First World War. Retrieved June 11, 2017, from https://history.blog.gov.uk/2015/01/19/air-raid-casualties-in-the-first-world-war/</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral's surveyor, Somers Clarke (1897-1906), saw the structures entrance into the 20th century. At the time however, little to no conservation work was done on the cathedral outside of the addition of electric lights in 1899. Mervyn Macartney however, taking over over as surveyor through 1906-31, took as much more active role in conservation of the cathedral. Starting in 1909 with the insertion and installation of hot-water heating system for the building and later installing fire resistance partitions to the cathedrals iconic dome, Macartney started a trend of improvement and change only strengthened in the wake of the first World War. 
To support the war effort, a searchlight was placed on cathedral land to scout for enemy fighters and the cathedral's Golden Gallery was utilized as a practice space for young soldiers to hone skills of signaling. On the 30th September, 1917, in an unfortunate turn-of-events, Saint Paul's Cathedral was struck 'by one of [England's] own shells, which landed on cornice of the south-east corner of the cathedral'. Luckily, the shell failed to cause any highly significant damage to the building's facade or structure. At one point, the cathedral house an 18-pounder gun in the central choir section of the cathedral in 1918. 
While helping country on the warfront, Saint Paul's Cathedral began to tackle its own problems presented with the turn of the second millennium it had seen come to pass. The impending question of the cathedral's stability came to the attention of conservation efforts. Engineer Sir Francis Fox, among other professionals, discuss the legitimacy of the building's structural stability. On the 25th of December, 1924, the District surveyor of the City of London served a 'Dangerous Structures Notice' that would put in motion a clear five-year repair program focused on preserving and insuring the structural integrity of the cathedral. Another concern surrounding Saint Paul's between the two world wars had to do with the height of new office buildings that began to rise close to the cathedral. These buildings represented a threat, as more high-rise office buildings had the potential to obscure, or effectively erase, the famous Saint Paul's dome from the London skyline. Built in 1675 over the previous cathedral of the same name, built 1314, ''?'' which itself was church built over the original Saint Paul's, This Cathedral holds a highly unique space and role in the history of London. As such, reverence beyond the aesthetic beauty of the building was channeled through Godfrey Allen (Surveyor 1931-56) in his proposal of a controlled area surrounding the cathedral. Established to protect and restore important views of the cathedral, the 1938 Saint Paul's Heights Controls made a clear effort to keep Saint Paul's Cathedral relevant in an increasingly modernizing world.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 108-111</ref> 

===World War II Damage===
[[File: Bomb Map around Saint Paul's Cathedral.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|The black circles represent where high explosive bombs fell on or near Saint Paul's Cathedral. Lightly shaded buildings were destroyed by fire or bomb damage.<ref> Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 112</ref>]]
With one world conflict concluded and with the next on its way, Saint Paul's Cathedral prepared itself for a war that would nearly spell its destruction. Various preparations were made to defend against aerial bombardment. Aware of the sheer amount of devastation the evolved bombing of World War II would prove for London, grilles and some carvings from the choir aisles, the Great Model, wood carvings from the library, along with other fittings were all removed from Saint Paul's interior in preparation for the worst. Moved either to crypt or country homes distant from the city, these fittings were seen as valuable enough to remove under threat of enemy retaliation. Lord Nelson, Christopher Wren and the Duke of Wellington's monument were encased in brick in the cathedral's crypt for extra precaution. 
All this effort to preserve what could be preserved in the event of catastrophe proved warranted as twelve to thirteen bombs fell inside a single block radius of the cathedral. Of these, six bombs fell within cathedral property, with two direct strikes to the actual cathedral itself. Remarkably however, the building remained standing after the war had ended. Outside of a few holes in the cathedral ceiling and damage to the exterior, the building as a whole appeared miraculously unharmed after the numerous attacks against London over the course of the war. In 1946, Dean Walter Matthews remarked that there was 'little doubt that Saint Paul's Cathedral's supports to the effect of the blast could not have happened but for the work of repair and consolidation which had so recently been carried out', referring to the five-year conservation efforts carried on a decade prior. Through its miraculous prevailing through war-torn London, Saint Paul’s Cathedral had become a symbol of national survival through the War, adding well to its already considerable stock of symbolic roles.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 111-115</ref> 

===Improvement in the Post-War to Present era===
[[File: Saint Paul's Night River 2.JPG|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral, Shot from Tate Modern. ]]
Following the destruction and devastation met in the 1940s, work to strike a balance between bringing the cathedral into the 21st century and preserving the building as a national landmark has dominated conservation efforts. With this lofty ideal of balance, controversy found a holding in discussions of conservation fairly early on. In 1966, the method approached in cleaning the cathedral's exterior caught criticism from British architectural critic, Ian Nairn. Disgruntled on how the building's upper exterior was cleaned, Nairn complained that "because soot and Portland stone work such a funny magic on each other, St Paul’s should never have been cleaned. The scrubbed parts show a small gain in clarity of detail and an immense loss in personality."<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 117-118</ref> Under Sir Bernard Feilden (Surveyor 1969–77), Saint Paul's gained an elevator, made significant repair to the buildings upper levels, and found itself faced with problems of air pollution and traffic vibration. After a thorough study of the external stonework, Feilden concluded the operation of the Bankside Power Station, built not long after WWII, was responsible for damaging Saint Paul's Cathedral. After shutting down, the Bankside Power Station became modern-day Tate Modern, just across the Thames from Saint Paul's to this day. 
In the following decades, relatively few major conservation works were undertaken until the 1990s. In 1993, Martin Stancliffe (Surveyor 1990-2011) produced a "Quinquennial Report," proposing several immediate and long-term programs of cathedral repair, maintenance and improvement. Most of the major projects of the next two decades were either proposed or hinted at in this Report: stonework repair and cleaning of the exterior, a cleaning of the entire interior, the liturgical reordering and relighting of the interior, and a staged bringing of the entire crypt into public use together with extensive facilities for staff, choir and educational purposes.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 118-119</ref> 
Contemporary movements in modernizing and making the city of London an attractive place to live have encouraged further conservation action. Designated in 2007, St Paul’s Cathedral Conservation Area was established to maintain the character of land uses, building and materials types, open spaces and trees, the use of the area for local and national cultural and political events, ecology and archaeology. Along with this, efforts on behalf of the city have been made add and preserve iconic views of the cathedral. Conservation, and with it a degree of controversy, continues to surround Saint Paul's Cathedral into the present day. In spite of these new challenges Saint Paul's Cathedral is dealt, the building continues to to serve as an exemplary space for gathering, reflection, and beauty. <ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 121-122.</ref>
 

==White Tower==
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref>]]
Located within the fortress of the [[Tower of London]], White Tower presides as one of world's best known castles. Given its name around 1100 C.E., the Tower stands today as the most complete palace in Europe. A brilliant example of Norman architecture, the Tower represents poignant evidence of early 14th century Norman influence in the British Isles. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 44.</ref>Strongly fortified, the square tower perches itself at the center of a defensive work of architecture, evoking stark medieval strength.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64</ref> White Tower stands as London's second largest tower of its age after Colchester tower at four stories connected via angle turrets at the building's corners. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 53-54.</ref>Access to the each floor was possible via the circular north-east turret, with the main entrance on the middle floor, on the south face, still used today.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> Over the years, however, the structure itself has been heavily reconstructed to retain its original shape and structure.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64.</ref>

However, despite the Tower's imposing reputation, the first legitimate systematic investigation of the structure took place only 20 years ago. From 1996 to 1998, White Tower was emptied for new displays and conservation works on the external south elevation, allowing a thorough rundown of the structure with modern methods for scientific analysis. A second round of investigation was only just recently done in 2008 to 2011, while cleaning and conservation of other cardinal elevations and turrets were taking place. The second analysis served to support earlier findings in 1996-8 and expanded in extent, form, and dating of post-medieval alterations and repairs. Previous to these studies, White tower was widely believed to have had more or less remained largely intact from the late 11th century, while others argued the tower evolved in scale over time. With these investigations findings, historians can settle several mysteries concerning the Tower's original plans and construction. These studies found that the structure was largely completed by circa 1100 C.E., with its final design being conceived from outset of the project. It was discovered that raising the roofs of the east and west rooms of the second floor by a story was the one lasting major alteration made to the building. Lastly, analysis has found that there was a significant pause in the primary construction, midway through the first floor, seen in changes in material and technique and in the sculptural detail of St. John's Chapel. Work apparently began around 1078 but only completed by 1100, with a break from 1079-83 to 1090-3.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 

==Photography==
 
In order to understand this projects deliverable, a basic background in photographic techniques is necessary. Specifically, I utilize five major conventions of photography: 1) leading lines, 2) formal balance, 3) framing, 4) simplicity, and 5) rule of thirds.
 
===Leading Lines===
 
Leading lines are fairly self-explanatory. They are quite simply lines within an image that leads the eye to another point in the image, or occasionally, out of the image. An important aspect of leading lines come from the fact that any definite line within an image can serve as a leading line. If can pair leading lines with a subject that is placed according to the rule of thirds, covered below, the resulting image should be very strong.
<ref>Masoner, L. (2017, March 7). Leading Lines - Definition in Photography. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.thespruce.com/leading-lines-2688488</ref>
 
===Formal Balance===
 
Formal Balance refers to placing equal weight and importance to both sides of an image. Also known as symmetry, this technique suggests balance and proportionality, while asymmetrical balance, known as Informal balance, make images more interesting. Informal balance suggests a more casual, dynamic, and relaxed feeling.
<ref>Bartel, M. (1999). Some Ideas About Composition and Design Elements, Principles, and Visual Effects. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.goshen.edu/art/ed/Compose.htm</ref>
 
===Framing===
 
Framing is the technique of drawing attention to the subject of your image by blocking other parts of the image with something in the scene. Framing establishes the images context, gives a sense of depth, lead the eye toward the image's focal point. Frames in images come in all shapes and sizes, including shooting through overhanging branches, shooting through windows, using tunnels, arches or doorways, etc.
<ref>Rowse, D. (2013, October 04). Framing Your Shots - Photography Composition Technique. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://digital-photography-school.com/framing-your-shots-photography-composition-technique/</ref>
 
===Simplicity===
 
Simplicity, in terms of an image, just means keeping everything not important much less interesting than what’s important in the frame. Especially avoid lines or objects that lead the eye away from the subject.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 
===Rule of Thirds===
 
One of the most common and widely known techniques of photography. By dividing the screen into three sections vertically and horizontally, the four intersections serve as the most effective points focus. positioning a subject on these intersections makes for a more interesting and dynamic image.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
[[File: St-Pauls-Cathedral-is-ref-007.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Reference photograph to juxtapose the abundance of post-modern architecture against Saint Paul's more classical style and age demanding respect. This image utilizes the rule of thirds.<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved May 18, 2017, from http://www.ikoniclifts.co.uk/resources/case-studies</ref>]] 
==Creating and Preserving a Landmark==
In an attempt inform on the influence and presence Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower command as monuments of architectural history, I set about using photography to capture and display visually the various ways these buildings fit into the city of London. Within this, I sought to encapsulate the feeling of reverence towards these structures, each monuments of their respective eras of English history. Saint Paul's Cathedral has retained its current appearance over the past three-hundred forty-two years and White Tower has stood since circa 1100 C.E. With time, naturally comes change. I chose these two unique buildings not simply for their age, but also the perseverance they represent. These buildings stand out against their surroundings, boasting uncommon architectural styles of English Baroque and Norman, respectfully. The goal of this milestone is to answer the question: "How were these structures conserved and what that means?". My answer comes in the form of a comprehensive gallery meant to inform through a deliberate, guided camera lens.
 My approach to White Tower examines the tower's most striking and defining feature, the structure's age. As a direct result of how old White Tower is and appears, every building surrounding the Tower of London serves as a sharp contrast. When compared to a 12th century fortress, buildings like London's Shard and Gherkin look more like science fiction that post-modern architecture. As London's oldest standing structure, the tower has gone through extensive conservation efforts to keep the building stable and operational. My gallery of the White Tower highlights these realities of the tower, each tackling a specific feature. Moving right from the sketched plans for the Tower of London, the gallery's first picture pins the tower between the distant features of the modern urban environment and the closer lush influence of the Tower of London's trees. Through this framing, the white tower allows itself to be perceived as much more of a piece of the landscape, rather than an ornament to it. The second picture simply seeks to portray the tower as a monument to itself. With an age harking back to the middle ages, by picturing the White Tower in this way, the view is draw to examine the preserved stone make-up of the tower raw façade. The third picture highlights the contrasting color and geometry between the tower on left and the tower on the right. This separation in years, styles, and shape all manifest as the physical distant depicted in this shot. The fourth picture presents the same subject matter but this time juxtaposing the two very directly. The light, focus, and composition favors the towering figure of London's Shard above the White Tower. However, the entire Tower of London also appears more vast and stable than the Shard's thin frame. By the use of photography techniques, a picture is able to convey intent alongside the literal material presented. In my gallery for Saint Paul's Cathedral, photographic composure is further emphasized.
 Throughout my background, I detail the conservation methods and approaches to Saint Paul's over the last hundred years, combating and persevering against dilemmas from pollution to air-raids. The legacy of Old Saint Paul's Cathedral survives by its modern equivalent, serving as a place of community, solidarity, and pride for Londoners. In the pictures below, I set about framing the cathedral, in a very real sense, within its modern context. The first picture from the Old Saint Paul's Cathedral sketches catches the cathedral engulfed and absorbed by its environment. With the dark blue shade of the Thames reflecting the light blue of the sky, the whole shot embodies a cohesive theme. While Saint Paul's signature baroque dome defines the city skyline, it doesn't dominate the entire shot. Room is left for other buildings in the distance to mark their shape on the cities outline. Through this, the Saint Paul's Cathedral can be seen as 'one of many.' The next picture serves as a deliberate contrast to the first picture. The sharp handrails of Millennium Bridge lead the viewers' eyes towards that same famous dome with authority. Saint Paul's unique English Baroque architecture and size are emphasized in this shot as the building is framed in an effort to draw in its potential audience, a feature clearly calculated by the bridge's engineers. The gallery's next picture appropriately follows the previous picture's momentum. In this closer shot, more direct comparison can be made between the cathedral and the surrounding architecture. The sharp corners and square geometry of the both sides of the shot oppose, in in that further emphasize, the uncommon smooth curvature and classical influence that Saint Paul's channels. mirroring to the previous picture, the roof of the contemporary buildings serve to direct focus away from themselves and towards the 342-year-old cathedral sitting comfortable at the center of the shot. Departing from the thematic consistency of the first three pictures, the next picture frames Saint Paul's with modern architecting from all sides. The entirety of building seems clearly out of place, standing out as the only white stone building in the shot. Buildings composed of concrete, red brick, glass, and steel dominate the scene's landscape. Metal construction cranes rise on opposite sides of the cathedral while the most striking element of the picture, the overbearing steel beams of the overhead bridge, appears to be completely trap this article of the past in London's urban modernity. The next shot resembles the first picture in many ways but provides a wider scope to take in the city as a whole. From the riverside, London's iconic features are set on display upon a level playing-field; that is to say, Saint Paul's, the Leadenhall Building, and the Walkie-Talkie all appear around the same size against the horizon. Almost the exact opposite of the previous picture, this shot showcases Saint Paul's Cathedral as a vital, defining feature of and testament to London as a capital and international city. The last two pictures of this gallery take a much more personal approach to experiencing Saint Paul's. Before coming to London, I did very little research into the buildings that define the city's skyline. Because of this, I was unsure of what to expect on Wednesday, May 10th, when my group was scheduled to visit Saint Paul's Cathedral. Walking from our flats, my group decided to take a small alley staircase to get to the cathedral quicker. These last two pictures represent how I first saw Saint Paul's Cathedral here in London that Wednesday morning. From the perspective of the alley way, the second-last shot captures much of what the previous pictures have touched on: focused perspective, modern context, unique architecture, London icon, and so on. The last picture in this gallery distinguishes itself with its approach of blatant honesty. The only visible part of Saint Paul's Cathedral is its dome, a pale blue bulb in an otherwise blank sky. The stairs, surrounding buildings, and lampposts all serve to create a frame-within-a-frame, emphasizing the uniqueness of the cathedral against the dark simplistic foreground. Through this lens, the idea of Saint Paul's Cathedral persists. Conservation and preservation efforts over the past three centuries allowed Christopher Wren's masterpiece survive and be revered to this day. Saint Paul's Cathedral isn't simply significant historically and religiously to London, the building itself is physically significant to defining London's shape and character.
 

==Gallery==
 
===White Tower===
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|''East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London'']]<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref> 
[[File: West Elevation (2010-11) CAD Isolation of differnt stone types Historic Royal Palaces Roland Harris.png|West Elevation of White Tower draw in CAD by Roland Harris]]<ref>Harris, R (2016). Castles and the Anglo-Norman World. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Tower of London Plans.JPG|''Tower of London historical plans''<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 358.</ref>
Image:Between nature and city.JPG|''White Tower framed between its natural and urban setting''
Image:Removed and Proud.JPG|''Significantly removed from its urban context, White Tower stands independent and solitary''
Image:Two different worlds.JPG|''This panorama shot captures the larger urban area to give the impression of two incompatible and incongruous styles on display''
Image:White Tower against the Spire.JPG|''White Tower dwarfed by London's crowning modern centerpiece, the Spire''
</gallery>

===Saint Paul's Cathedral===
[[File: Saint Paul's South Transept.JPG|Saint Paul's South Transept]]
[[File: Photogrammetric Survey of Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall.png|Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall with color coded mark ups of pieces replaced or repaired dating back 300 years.]]<ref>Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 119.</ref> 
 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|''Old Saint Paul's Reference Sketches''<ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>
Image:Riverside Saint Paul Skyline.JPG|''Riverside Saint Paul Skyline''
Image:Destination Saint Paul's2.JPG|''Modern form of the Millennial Bridge framing towards Saint Paul's''
Image:Crowded Small Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's Cathedral crowded by contemporary buildings''
Image:Saint Paul's Crowded by Modernity.JPG|''Saint Paul's surrounded in contemporary architecture''
Image:Part of the Land Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's blending into the London skyline''
Image:Down the Alley.jpg|''Saint Paul's Cathedral's iconic dome highlighted by the alleys narrow features''
Image: Stairway.jpg|''With only the very top of Saint Paul's peaking over the top step, this staircase deliberately channels attention and reverence''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
Architecture is a unique art-form in that it enables architects to instill ideas and ideals into part of the city, defining itself as well as it environment. Because of this, conservation work essentially seeks to preserve the character of the city. Conservation, as a result, defines a city in its attempts to maintain it. London's emphasis on conservation seen in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower reflects an attitude of pride and resilience. A cathedral proudly standing for 342 years in place of the even more ancient Old Saint Paul's Cathedral that stood for centuries before it and a medieval castle nearing the age of a millennium deftly preserved and still in use; these two structures stand as monuments to the dedication and determination behind their collective conservation. Both examples of architecture, Norman and English Baroque, remain nearly unseen in London at such a preserved condition. As these structures demonstrate their value on the London landscape in such a physical way, I sought to capture and examine each site's characteristics and defining features through photography, utilizing photographic techniques to emphasize the ideas each building has come to represent. It was a pleasure to examine London architecture on a scale larger than each building itself, and through the lens of visual analysis.
 

=References=
 
<references />
 
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

London's Architectural Preservation of History

2017-06-22T13:36:28Z

Crfawcett: /* Section 1: Background */

=London's Architectural Preservation of History=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = London's Architectual Preservation of History
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:ArchitecturalDiversity.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|caption = Perserving a Diverse and Complex City
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This Milestone's aim was to address and analyze how and why London has successfully preserved and upheld its most ancient landmarks, rescuing them from natural erosion and deconstruction and how these means of preservation have changed over time. To this end, I researched the history of Saint Paul's Cathedral and The Tower of London's White Tower through the lens of conservation. These two sites serve as exemplary testaments to architectural conservation's ability to ensure physical buildings themselves along with their own respective legacies. Through the means of photograph, the deliverable component of this milestone takes on a style specifically to showcase contemporary conservation efforts most effectively. What the world sees in the city has become less important than how it's seen, as views and perception become an increasingly defining feature of the modern city.
In summary, this project analyzes Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower directly by reflecting on how centuries of conservation efforts have effect on how these iconic sites of London are seen today.
 

=Introduction=
 
This Milestone studies London's architectural preservation of history through two case studies on Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, the central tower of the Tower of London. My aim is to inform on the modern state and significance of these buildings by largely visual means, rather than literary. Much of history is approached from a literary standpoint, taking the shape of textbooks and periodicals. However, exploring history and its significance to the modern era through literary means alone would be limiting. Though this milestone, my background forms the basis on which my deliverable gallery ought to be observed from. Insight can be drawn from understand both how these buildings came to represent perseverance and what that physically looks like. Utilizing on site photographs taken using a handheld camera, this project is uniquely informed by the experience of living in London. 
This project was inspired by the last pages of chapter four of John Schofield's 'St Paul’s 1897–2013: protection and conservation.' On these pages, Schofield notes that the most recent means of conservation around Saint Paul's Cathedral has been an emphasis on not only maintenance of the cathedral itself, but views of the building. London, like all cities, must maintain a balance between the development of new buildings in the spirit of progressive innovation and the preservation of older buildings that stand as a testament to the city's history. These pressures are only further emphasized by limiting factors on space for urban development within London as a result of London's Green Belt, which is itself contained within the island of Great Britain. With such a long-running, rich English history to maintain, London errs more on the side of conservation. Nowhere is this made more apparent than in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
As long as buildings have existed, methods of preservation or conservation have developed to maintain architectural integrity. The United States' relatively youth means that the oldest landmarks date only several decades older than the country's independence less than three-hundred years ago. England's history dates back to basic agricultural civilization on the English landmass over two-thousand years ago. With much more history to preserve, the city of London today functions as a unique hub of structures ranging in style, construction, and repair. This milestone's central aim requires an in-depth examination of how London's oldest standing structure, the Tower of London's White Tower, and oldest church site, Saint Paul's Cathedral, have managed to adapt, grow and develop as sights of architectural achieve while maintaining a presence in the constantly evolving landscape of city. <ref>Teutonico, J and Fidler, J (1998). ''Time for Change: An Overview of Building-Materials Research for Conservation ofHistoric Structures''. New York: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT)., pg. 45-9.</ref>
 
==Saint Paul's Cathedral==
[[File: Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|Illustration from seventeenth century elevations of Old Saint Paul's. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral as a place of worship has presided as a monument for as long as records of the London area has been in existence. After the Britons fled from invaders in the southern English Isles to London sometime in the 1st century, historical records of London resurface in 604 C.E. These records note the founding of what comes to known as Old Saint Paul's Cathedral by Mellitus, bishop of London. Apart from monastic establishments, Saint Paul's stood as the only place of stately worship through the great fire of 1666 for the people of London. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>Old Saint Paul's stood as the tallest church in all of London, standing at 586 feet and biggest at 72,460 square feet. Tragically, Elizabethan England (1558-1603 C.E.) took a rather careless attitude towards its architectural heritage. As a result, architectural conservation remained nearly unseen. A perfect example of such negligence lie in the example of Old Saint Paul's spire. Struck by a stray lightning bolt, Saint Paul's spire saw no attempt in restoring, what was at the time, London tallest architectural feat. While the roof was at the very least patched, no attempt was ever made to replace such an iconic feature of London's largest church. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226-228.</ref>
The Great Fire of London destroyed about four fifths of London, laying to waste 86 churches and a badly damaged Saint Paul's.
 
Fortunately, with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 came a wealth of talented professionals poised to rebuild and replace the devastation of the Great Fire. [[Christopher Wren]] lied among these professionals, future designer and architect of modern Saint Paul's Cathedral. Building 51 churches and cathedrals across London, Wren's Saint Paul's distinguished itself as the cathedral with the largest undertaking. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>
Wren was afforded such a entirely unique opportunity for urban redefinition, making the city into an 'architectural laboratory' for the development of the protestant parish church. Saint Paul's itself attempted to and succeeded in crystallizing an ideal form of a protestant cathedral.<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (1998). London: the city churches. London: Penguin Group. pg. 25-40.</ref>
 

 
===Early 20th Century and the Great War===
[[File: Zeppelin-over-St-Pauls-Cathedral-London-1930.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral beneath a Zeppelin in 1930. <ref>Edgar Jones, 19 January 2015 - Defence and conflict, First World War, No 10 guest historian series. (n.d.). Air-raid casualties in the First World War. Retrieved June 11, 2017, from https://history.blog.gov.uk/2015/01/19/air-raid-casualties-in-the-first-world-war/</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral's surveyor, Somers Clarke (1897-1906), saw the structures entrance into the 20th century. At the time however, little to no conservation work was done on the cathedral outside of the addition of electric lights in 1899. Mervyn Macartney however, taking over over as surveyor through 1906-31, took as much more active role in conservation of the cathedral. Starting in 1909 with the insertion and installation of hot-water heating system for the building and later installing fire resistance partitions to the cathedrals iconic dome, Macartney started a trend of improvement and change only strengthened in the wake of the first World War. 
To support the war effort, a searchlight was placed on cathedral land to scout for enemy fighters and the cathedral's Golden Gallery was utilized as a practice space for young soldiers to hone skills of signaling. On the 30th September, 1917, in an unfortunate turn-of-events, Saint Paul's Cathedral was struck 'by one of [England's] own shells, which landed on cornice of the south-east corner of the cathedral'. Luckily, the shell failed to cause any highly significant damage to the building's facade or structure. At one point, the cathedral house an 18-pounder gun in the central choir section of the cathedral in 1918. 
While helping country on the warfront, Saint Paul's Cathedral began to tackle its own problems presented with the turn of the second millennium it had seen come to pass. The impending question of the cathedral's stability came to the attention of conservation efforts. Engineer Sir Francis Fox, among other professionals, discuss the legitimacy of the building's structural stability. On the 25th of December, 1924, the District surveyor of the City of London served a 'Dangerous Structures Notice' that would put in motion a clear five-year repair program focused on preserving and insuring the structural integrity of the cathedral. Another concern surrounding Saint Paul's between the two world wars had to do with the height of new office buildings that began to rise close to the cathedral. These buildings represented a threat, as more high-rise office buildings had the potential to obscure, or effectively erase, the famous Saint Paul's dome from the London skyline. Built in 1675 over the previous cathedral of the same name, built 1314, ''?'' which itself was church built over the original Saint Paul's, This Cathedral holds a highly unique space and role in the history of London. As such, reverence beyond the aesthetic beauty of the building was channeled through Godfrey Allen (Surveyor 1931-56) in his proposal of a controlled area surrounding the cathedral. Established to protect and restore important views of the cathedral, the 1938 Saint Paul's Heights Controls made a clear effort to keep Saint Paul's Cathedral relevant in an increasingly modernizing world.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 108-111</ref> 

===World War II Damage===
[[File: Bomb Map around Saint Paul's Cathedral.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|The black circles represent where high explosive bombs fell on or near Saint Paul's Cathedral. Lightly shaded buildings were destroyed by fire or bomb damage.<ref> Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 112</ref>]]
With one world conflict concluded and with the next on its way, Saint Paul's Cathedral prepared itself for a war that would nearly spell its destruction. Various preparations were made to defend against aerial bombardment. Aware of the sheer amount of devastation the evolved bombing of World War II would prove for London, grilles and some carvings from the choir aisles, the Great Model, wood carvings from the library, along with other fittings were all removed from Saint Paul's interior in preparation for the worst. Moved either to crypt or country homes distant from the city, these fittings were seen as valuable enough to remove under threat of enemy retaliation. Lord Nelson, Christopher Wren and the Duke of Wellington's monument were encased in brick in the cathedral's crypt for extra precaution. 
All this effort to preserve what could be preserved in the event of catastrophe proved warranted as twelve to thirteen bombs fell inside a single block radius of the cathedral. Of these, six bombs fell within cathedral property, with two direct strikes to the actual cathedral itself. Remarkably however, the building remained standing after the war had ended. Outside of a few holes in the cathedral ceiling and damage to the exterior, the building as a whole appeared miraculously unharmed after the numerous attacks against London over the course of the war. In 1946, Dean Walter Matthews remarked that there was 'little doubt that Saint Paul's Cathedral's supports to the effect of the blast could not have happened but for the work of repair and consolidation which had so recently been carried out', referring to the five-year conservation efforts carried on a decade prior. Through its miraculous prevailing through war-torn London, Saint Paul’s Cathedral had become a symbol of national survival through the War, adding well to its already considerable stock of symbolic roles.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 111-115</ref> 

===Improvement in the Post-War to Present era===
[[File: Saint Paul's Night River 2.JPG|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral, Shot from Tate Modern. ]]
Following the destruction and devastation met in the 1940s, work to strike a balance between bringing the cathedral into the 21st century and preserving the building as a national landmark has dominated conservation efforts. With this lofty ideal of balance, controversy found a holding in discussions of conservation fairly early on. In 1966, the method approached in cleaning the cathedral's exterior caught criticism from British architectural critic, Ian Nairn. Disgruntled on how the building's upper exterior was cleaned, Nairn complained that "because soot and Portland stone work such a funny magic on each other, St Paul’s should never have been cleaned. The scrubbed parts show a small gain in clarity of detail and an immense loss in personality."<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 117-118</ref> Under Sir Bernard Feilden (Surveyor 1969–77), Saint Paul's gained an elevator, made significant repair to the buildings upper levels, and found itself faced with problems of air pollution and traffic vibration. After a thorough study of the external stonework, Feilden concluded the operation of the Bankside Power Station, built not long after WWII, was responsible for damaging Saint Paul's Cathedral. After shutting down, the Bankside Power Station became modern-day Tate Modern, just across the Thames from Saint Paul's to this day. 
In the following decades, relatively few major conservation works were undertaken until the 1990s. In 1993, Martin Stancliffe (Surveyor 1990-2011) produced a "Quinquennial Report," proposing several immediate and long-term programs of cathedral repair, maintenance and improvement. Most of the major projects of the next two decades were either proposed or hinted at in this Report: stonework repair and cleaning of the exterior, a cleaning of the entire interior, the liturgical reordering and relighting of the interior, and a staged bringing of the entire crypt into public use together with extensive facilities for staff, choir and educational purposes.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 118-119</ref> 
Contemporary movements in modernizing and making the city of London an attractive place to live have encouraged further conservation action. Designated in 2007, St Paul’s Cathedral Conservation Area was established to maintain the character of land uses, building and materials types, open spaces and trees, the use of the area for local and national cultural and political events, ecology and archaeology. Along with this, efforts on behalf of the city have been made add and preserve iconic views of the cathedral. Conservation, and with it a degree of controversy, continues to surround Saint Paul's Cathedral into the present day. In spite of these new challenges Saint Paul's Cathedral is dealt, the building continues to to serve as an exemplary space for gathering, reflection, and beauty. <ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 121-122.</ref>
 

==White Tower==
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref>]]
Located within the fortress of the [[Tower of London]], White Tower presides as one of world's best known castles. Given its name around 1100 C.E., the Tower stands today as the most complete palace in Europe. A brilliant example of Norman architecture, the Tower represents poignant evidence of early 14th century Norman influence in the British Isles. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 44.</ref>Strongly fortified, the square tower perches itself at the center of a defensive work of architecture, evoking stark medieval strength.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64</ref> White Tower stands as London's second largest tower of its age after Colchester tower at four stories connected via angle turrets at the building's corners. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 53-54.</ref>Access to the each floor was possible via the circular north-east turret, with the main entrance on the middle floor, on the south face, still used today.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> Over the years, however, the structure itself has been heavily reconstructed to retain its original shape and structure.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64.</ref>

However, despite the Tower's imposing reputation, the first legitimate systematic investigation of the structure took place only 20 years ago. From 1996 to 1998, White Tower was emptied for new displays and conservation works on the external south elevation, allowing a thorough rundown of the structure with modern methods for scientific analysis. A second round of investigation was only just recently done in 2008 to 2011, while cleaning and conservation of other cardinal elevations and turrets were taking place. The second analysis served to support earlier findings in 1996-8 and expanded in extent, form, and dating of post-medieval alterations and repairs. Previous to these studies, White tower was widely believed to have had more or less remained largely intact from the late 11th century, while others argued the tower evolved in scale over time. With these investigations findings, historians can settle several mysteries concerning the Tower's original plans and construction. These studies found that the structure was largely completed by circa 1100 C.E., with its final design being conceived from outset of the project. It was discovered that raising the roofs of the east and west rooms of the second floor by a story was the one lasting major alteration made to the building. Lastly, analysis has found that there was a significant pause in the primary construction, midway through the first floor, seen in changes in material and technique and in the sculptural detail of St. John's Chapel. Work apparently began around 1078 but only completed by 1100, with a break from 1079-83 to 1090-3.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 

==Photography==
 
In order to understand this projects deliverable, a basic background in photographic techniques is necessary. Specifically, I utilize five major conventions of photography: 1) leading lines, 2) formal balance, 3) framing, 4) simplicity, and 5) rule of thirds.
 
===Leading Lines===
 
Leading lines are fairly self-explanatory. They are quite simply lines within an image that leads the eye to another point in the image, or occasionally, out of the image. An important aspect of leading lines come from the fact that any definite line within an image can serve as a leading line. If can pair leading lines with a subject that is placed according to the rule of thirds, covered below, the resulting image should be very strong.
<ref>Masoner, L. (2017, March 7). Leading Lines - Definition in Photography. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.thespruce.com/leading-lines-2688488</ref>
 
===Formal Balance===
 
Formal Balance refers to placing equal weight and importance to both sides of an image. Also known as symmetry, this technique suggests balance and proportionality, while asymmetrical balance, known as Informal balance, make images more interesting. Informal balance suggests a more casual, dynamic, and relaxed feeling.
<ref>Bartel, M. (1999). Some Ideas About Composition and Design Elements, Principles, and Visual Effects. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.goshen.edu/art/ed/Compose.htm</ref>
 
===Framing===
 
Framing is the technique of drawing attention to the subject of your image by blocking other parts of the image with something in the scene. Framing establishes the images context, gives a sense of depth, lead the eye toward the image's focal point. Frames in images come in all shapes and sizes, including shooting through overhanging branches, shooting through windows, using tunnels, arches or doorways, etc.
<ref>Rowse, D. (2013, October 04). Framing Your Shots - Photography Composition Technique. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://digital-photography-school.com/framing-your-shots-photography-composition-technique/</ref>
 
===Simplicity===
 
Simplicity, in terms of an image, just means keeping everything not important much less interesting than what’s important in the frame. Especially avoid lines or objects that lead the eye away from the subject.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 
===Rule of Thirds===
 
One of the most common and widely known techniques of photography. By dividing the screen into three sections vertically and horizontally, the four intersections serve as the most effective points focus. positioning a subject on these intersections makes for a more interesting and dynamic image.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
[[File: St-Pauls-Cathedral-is-ref-007.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Reference photograph to juxtapose the abundance of post-modern architecture against Saint Paul's more classical style and age demanding respect.<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved May 18, 2017, from http://www.ikoniclifts.co.uk/resources/case-studies</ref>]] 
==Creating and Preserving a Landmark==
In an attempt inform on the influence and presence Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower command as monuments of architectural history, I set about using photography to capture and display visually the various ways these buildings fit into the city of London. Within this, I sought to encapsulate the feeling of reverence towards these structures, each monuments of their respective eras of English history. Saint Paul's Cathedral has retained its current appearance over the past three-hundred forty-two years and White Tower has stood since circa 1100 C.E. With time, naturally comes change. I chose these two unique buildings not simply for their age, but also the perseverance they represent. These buildings stand out against their surroundings, boasting uncommon architectural styles of English Baroque and Norman, respectfully. The goal of this milestone is to answer the question: "How were these structures conserved and what that means?". My answer comes in the form of a comprehensive gallery meant to inform through a deliberate, guided camera lens.
 My approach to White Tower examines the tower's most striking and defining feature, the structure's age. As a direct result of how old White Tower is and appears, every building surrounding the Tower of London serves as a sharp contrast. When compared to a 12th century fortress, buildings like London's Shard and Gherkin look more like science fiction that post-modern architecture. As London's oldest standing structure, the tower has gone through extensive conservation efforts to keep the building stable and operational. My gallery of the White Tower highlights these realities of the tower, each tackling a specific feature. Moving right from the sketched plans for the Tower of London, the gallery's first picture pins the tower between the distant features of the modern urban environment and the closer lush influence of the Tower of London's trees. Through this framing, the white tower allows itself to be perceived as much more of a piece of the landscape, rather than an ornament to it. The second picture simply seeks to portray the tower as a monument to itself. With an age harking back to the middle ages, by picturing the White Tower in this way, the view is draw to examine the preserved stone make-up of the tower raw façade. The third picture highlights the contrasting color and geometry between the tower on left and the tower on the right. This separation in years, styles, and shape all manifest as the physical distant depicted in this shot. The fourth picture presents the same subject matter but this time juxtaposing the two very directly. The light, focus, and composition favors the towering figure of London's Shard above the White Tower. However, the entire Tower of London also appears more vast and stable than the Shard's thin frame. By the use of photography techniques, a picture is able to convey intent alongside the literal material presented. In my gallery for Saint Paul's Cathedral, photographic composure is further emphasized.
 Throughout my background, I detail the conservation methods and approaches to Saint Paul's over the last hundred years, combating and persevering against dilemmas from pollution to air-raids. The legacy of Old Saint Paul's Cathedral survives by its modern equivalent, serving as a place of community, solidarity, and pride for Londoners. In the pictures below, I set about framing the cathedral, in a very real sense, within its modern context. The first picture from the Old Saint Paul's Cathedral sketches catches the cathedral engulfed and absorbed by its environment. With the dark blue shade of the Thames reflecting the light blue of the sky, the whole shot embodies a cohesive theme. While Saint Paul's signature baroque dome defines the city skyline, it doesn't dominate the entire shot. Room is left for other buildings in the distance to mark their shape on the cities outline. Through this, the Saint Paul's Cathedral can be seen as 'one of many.' The next picture serves as a deliberate contrast to the first picture. The sharp handrails of Millennium Bridge lead the viewers' eyes towards that same famous dome with authority. Saint Paul's unique English Baroque architecture and size are emphasized in this shot as the building is framed in an effort to draw in its potential audience, a feature clearly calculated by the bridge's engineers. The gallery's next picture appropriately follows the previous picture's momentum. In this closer shot, more direct comparison can be made between the cathedral and the surrounding architecture. The sharp corners and square geometry of the both sides of the shot oppose, in in that further emphasize, the uncommon smooth curvature and classical influence that Saint Paul's channels. mirroring to the previous picture, the roof of the contemporary buildings serve to direct focus away from themselves and towards the 342-year-old cathedral sitting comfortable at the center of the shot. Departing from the thematic consistency of the first three pictures, the next picture frames Saint Paul's with modern architecting from all sides. The entirety of building seems clearly out of place, standing out as the only white stone building in the shot. Buildings composed of concrete, red brick, glass, and steel dominate the scene's landscape. Metal construction cranes rise on opposite sides of the cathedral while the most striking element of the picture, the overbearing steel beams of the overhead bridge, appears to be completely trap this article of the past in London's urban modernity. The next shot resembles the first picture in many ways but provides a wider scope to take in the city as a whole. From the riverside, London's iconic features are set on display upon a level playing-field; that is to say, Saint Paul's, the Leadenhall Building, and the Walkie-Talkie all appear around the same size against the horizon. Almost the exact opposite of the previous picture, this shot showcases Saint Paul's Cathedral as a vital, defining feature of and testament to London as a capital and international city. The last two pictures of this gallery take a much more personal approach to experiencing Saint Paul's. Before coming to London, I did very little research into the buildings that define the city's skyline. Because of this, I was unsure of what to expect on Wednesday, May 10th, when my group was scheduled to visit Saint Paul's Cathedral. Walking from our flats, my group decided to take a small alley staircase to get to the cathedral quicker. These last two pictures represent how I first saw Saint Paul's Cathedral here in London that Wednesday morning. From the perspective of the alley way, the second-last shot captures much of what the previous pictures have touched on: focused perspective, modern context, unique architecture, London icon, and so on. The last picture in this gallery distinguishes itself with its approach of blatant honesty. The only visible part of Saint Paul's Cathedral is its dome, a pale blue bulb in an otherwise blank sky. The stairs, surrounding buildings, and lampposts all serve to create a frame-within-a-frame, emphasizing the uniqueness of the cathedral against the dark simplistic foreground. Through this lens, the idea of Saint Paul's Cathedral persists. Conservation and preservation efforts over the past three centuries allowed Christopher Wren's masterpiece survive and be revered to this day. Saint Paul's Cathedral isn't simply significant historically and religiously to London, the building itself is physically significant to defining London's shape and character.
 

==Gallery==
 
===White Tower===
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|''East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London'']]<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref> 
[[File: West Elevation (2010-11) CAD Isolation of differnt stone types Historic Royal Palaces Roland Harris.png|West Elevation of White Tower draw in CAD by Roland Harris]]<ref>Harris, R (2016). Castles and the Anglo-Norman World. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Tower of London Plans.JPG|''Tower of London historical plans''<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 358.</ref>
Image:Between nature and city.JPG|''White Tower framed between its natural and urban setting''
Image:Removed and Proud.JPG|''Significantly removed from its urban context, White Tower stands independent and solitary''
Image:Two different worlds.JPG|''This panorama shot captures the larger urban area to give the impression of two incompatible and incongruous styles on display''
Image:White Tower against the Spire.JPG|''White Tower dwarfed by London's crowning modern centerpiece, the Spire''
</gallery>

===Saint Paul's Cathedral===
[[File: Saint Paul's South Transept.JPG|Saint Paul's South Transept]]
[[File: Photogrammetric Survey of Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall.png|Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall with color coded mark ups of pieces replaced or repaired dating back 300 years.]]<ref>Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 119.</ref> 
 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|''Old Saint Paul's Reference Sketches''<ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>
Image:Riverside Saint Paul Skyline.JPG|''Riverside Saint Paul Skyline''
Image:Destination Saint Paul's2.JPG|''Modern form of the Millennial Bridge framing towards Saint Paul's''
Image:Crowded Small Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's Cathedral crowded by contemporary buildings''
Image:Saint Paul's Crowded by Modernity.JPG|''Saint Paul's surrounded in contemporary architecture''
Image:Part of the Land Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's blending into the London skyline''
Image:Down the Alley.jpg|''Saint Paul's Cathedral's iconic dome highlighted by the alleys narrow features''
Image: Stairway.jpg|''With only the very top of Saint Paul's peaking over the top step, this staircase deliberately channels attention and reverence''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
Architecture is a unique art-form in that it enables architects to instill ideas and ideals into part of the city, defining itself as well as it environment. Because of this, conservation work essentially seeks to preserve the character of the city. Conservation, as a result, defines a city in its attempts to maintain it. London's emphasis on conservation seen in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower reflects an attitude of pride and resilience. A cathedral proudly standing for 342 years in place of the even more ancient Old Saint Paul's Cathedral that stood for centuries before it and a medieval castle nearing the age of a millennium deftly preserved and still in use; these two structures stand as monuments to the dedication and determination behind their collective conservation. Both examples of architecture, Norman and English Baroque, remain nearly unseen in London at such a preserved condition. As these structures demonstrate their value on the London landscape in such a physical way, I sought to capture and examine each site's characteristics and defining features through photography, utilizing photographic techniques to emphasize the ideas each building has come to represent. It was a pleasure to examine London architecture on a scale larger than each building itself, and through the lens of visual analysis.
 

=References=
 
<references />
 
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

London's Architectural Preservation of History

2017-06-22T13:35:34Z

Crfawcett: /* Section 1: Background */

=London's Architectural Preservation of History=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = London's Architectual Preservation of History
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:ArchitecturalDiversity.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|caption = Perserving a Diverse and Complex City
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This Milestone's aim was to address and analyze how and why London has successfully preserved and upheld its most ancient landmarks, rescuing them from natural erosion and deconstruction and how these means of preservation have changed over time. To this end, I researched the history of Saint Paul's Cathedral and The Tower of London's White Tower through the lens of conservation. These two sites serve as exemplary testaments to architectural conservation's ability to ensure physical buildings themselves along with their own respective legacies. Through the means of photograph, the deliverable component of this milestone takes on a style specifically to showcase contemporary conservation efforts most effectively. What the world sees in the city has become less important than how it's seen, as views and perception become an increasingly defining feature of the modern city.
In summary, this project analyzes Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower directly by reflecting on how centuries of conservation efforts have effect on how these iconic sites of London are seen today.
 

=Introduction=
 
This Milestone studies London's architectural preservation of history through two case studies on Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower, the central tower of the Tower of London. My aim is to inform on the modern state and significance of these buildings by largely visual means, rather than literary. Much of history is approached from a literary standpoint, taking the shape of textbooks and periodicals. However, exploring history and its significance to the modern era through literary means alone would be limiting. Though this milestone, my background forms the basis on which my deliverable gallery ought to be observed from. Insight can be drawn from understand both how these buildings came to represent perseverance and what that physically looks like. Utilizing on site photographs taken using a handheld camera, this project is uniquely informed by the experience of living in London. 
This project was inspired by the last pages of chapter four of John Schofield's 'St Paul’s 1897–2013: protection and conservation.' On these pages, Schofield notes that the most recent means of conservation around Saint Paul's Cathedral has been an emphasis on not only maintenance of the cathedral itself, but views of the building. London, like all cities, must maintain a balance between the development of new buildings in the spirit of progressive innovation and the preservation of older buildings that stand as a testament to the city's history. These pressures are only further emphasized by limiting factors on space for urban development within London as a result of London's Green Belt, which is itself contained within the island of Great Britain. With such a long-running, rich English history to maintain, London errs more on the side of conservation. Nowhere is this made more apparent than in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
As long as buildings have existed, methods of preservation or conservation have developed to maintain architectural integrity. The United States' relatively youth means that the oldest landmarks date only several decades older than the country's independence less than three-hundred years ago. England's history dates back to basic agricultural civilization on the English landmass over two-thousand years ago. With much more history to preserve, the city of London today functions as a unique hub of structures ranging in style, construction, and repair. This milestone's central aim requires an in-depth examination of how London's oldest standing structure, the Tower of London's White Tower, and oldest church site, Saint Paul's Cathedral, have managed to adapt, grow and develop as sights of architectural achieve while maintaining a presence in the constantly evolving landscape of city. <ref>Teutonico, J and Fidler, J (1998). ''Time for Change: An Overview of Building-Materials Research for Conservation ofHistoric Structures''. New York: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT)., pg. 45-9.</ref>
 
==Saint Paul's Cathedral==
[[File: Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|Illustration from seventeenth century elevations of Old Saint Paul's. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral as a place of worship has presided as a monument for as long as records of the London area has been in existence. After the Britons fled from invaders in the southern English Isles to London sometime in the 1st century, historical records of London resurface in 604 C.E. These records note the founding of what comes to known as Old Saint Paul's Cathedral by Mellitus, bishop of London. Apart from monastic establishments, Saint Paul's stood as the only place of stately worship through the great fire of 1666 for the people of London. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>Old Saint Paul's stood as the tallest church in all of London, standing at 586 feet and biggest at 72,460 square feet. Tragically, Elizabethan England (1558-1603 C.E.) took a rather careless attitude towards its architectural heritage. As a result, architectural conservation remained nearly unseen. A perfect example of such negligence lie in the example of Old Saint Paul's spire. Struck by a stray lightning bolt, Saint Paul's spire saw no attempt in restoring, what was at the time, London tallest architectural feat. While the roof was at the very least patched, no attempt was ever made to replace such an iconic feature of London's largest church. <ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226-228.</ref>
The Great Fire of London destroyed about four fifths of London, laying to waste 86 churches and a badly damaged Saint Paul's.
 
Fortunately, with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 came a wealth of talented professionals poised to rebuild and replace the devastation of the Great Fire. [[Christopher Wren]] lied among these professionals, future designer and architect of modern Saint Paul's Cathedral. Building 51 churches and cathedrals across London, Wren's Saint Paul's distinguished itself as the cathedral with the largest undertaking. <ref>Blatch, M. (1978). "A Guide to London's Churches". London: Constable and Company Ltd.</ref>
Wren was afforded such a entirely unique opportunity for urban redefinition, making the city into an 'architectural laboratory' for the development of the protestant parish church. Saint Paul's itself attempted to and succeeded in crystallizing an ideal form of a protestant cathedral.<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (1998). London: the city churches. London: Penguin Group. pg. 25-40.</ref>
 

 
===Early 20th Century and the Great War===
[[File: Zeppelin-over-St-Pauls-Cathedral-London-1930.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral beneath a Zeppelin in 1930. <ref>Edgar Jones, 19 January 2015 - Defence and conflict, First World War, No 10 guest historian series. (n.d.). Air-raid casualties in the First World War. Retrieved June 11, 2017, from https://history.blog.gov.uk/2015/01/19/air-raid-casualties-in-the-first-world-war/</ref>]]
Saint Paul's Cathedral's surveyor, Somers Clarke (1897-1906), saw the structures entrance into the 20th century. At the time however, little to no conservation work was done on the cathedral outside of the addition of electric lights in 1899. Mervyn Macartney however, taking over over as surveyor through 1906-31, took as much more active role in conservation of the cathedral. Starting in 1909 with the insertion and installation of hot-water heating system for the building and later installing fire resistance partitions to the cathedrals iconic dome, Macartney started a trend of improvement and change only strengthened in the wake of the first World War. 
To support the war effort, a searchlight was placed on cathedral land to scout for enemy fighters and the cathedral's Golden Gallery was utilized as a practice space for young soldiers to hone skills of signaling. On the 30th September, 1917, in an unfortunate turn-of-events, Saint Paul's Cathedral was struck 'by one of [England's] own shells, which landed on cornice of the south-east corner of the cathedral'. Luckily, the shell failed to cause any highly significant damage to the building's facade or structure. At one point, the cathedral house an 18-pounder gun in the central choir section of the cathedral in 1918. 
While helping country on the warfront, Saint Paul's Cathedral began to tackle its own problems presented with the turn of the second millennium it had seen come to pass. The impending question of the cathedral's stability came to the attention of conservation efforts. Engineer Sir Francis Fox, among other professionals, discuss the legitimacy of the building's structural stability. On the 25th of December, 1924, the District surveyor of the City of London served a 'Dangerous Structures Notice' that would put in motion a clear five-year repair program focused on preserving and insuring the structural integrity of the cathedral. Another concern surrounding Saint Paul's between the two world wars had to do with the height of new office buildings that began to rise close to the cathedral. These buildings represented a threat, as more high-rise office buildings had the potential to obscure, or effectively erase, the famous Saint Paul's dome from the London skyline. Built in 1675 over the previous cathedral of the same name, built 1314, ''?'' which itself was church built over the original Saint Paul's, This Cathedral holds a highly unique space and role in the history of London. As such, reverence beyond the aesthetic beauty of the building was channeled through Godfrey Allen (Surveyor 1931-56) in his proposal of a controlled area surrounding the cathedral. Established to protect and restore important views of the cathedral, the 1938 Saint Paul's Heights Controls made a clear effort to keep Saint Paul's Cathedral relevant in an increasingly modernizing world.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 108-111</ref> 

===World War II Damage===
[[File: Bomb Map around Saint Paul's Cathedral.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|The black circles represent where high explosive bombs fell on or near Saint Paul's Cathedral. Lightly shaded buildings were destroyed by fire or bomb damage.<ref> Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 112</ref>]]
With one world conflict concluded and with the next on its way, Saint Paul's Cathedral prepared itself for a war that would nearly spell its destruction. Various preparations were made to defend against aerial bombardment. Aware of the sheer amount of devastation the evolved bombing of World War II would prove for London, grilles and some carvings from the choir aisles, the Great Model, wood carvings from the library, along with other fittings were all removed from Saint Paul's interior in preparation for the worst. Moved either to crypt or country homes distant from the city, these fittings were seen as valuable enough to remove under threat of enemy retaliation. Lord Nelson, Christopher Wren and the Duke of Wellington's monument were encased in brick in the cathedral's crypt for extra precaution. 
All this effort to preserve what could be preserved in the event of catastrophe proved warranted as twelve to thirteen bombs fell inside a single block radius of the cathedral. Of these, six bombs fell within cathedral property, with two direct strikes to the actual cathedral itself. Remarkably however, the building remained standing after the war had ended. Outside of a few holes in the cathedral ceiling and damage to the exterior, the building as a whole appeared miraculously unharmed after the numerous attacks against London over the course of the war. In 1946, Dean Walter Matthews remarked that there was 'little doubt that Saint Paul's Cathedral's supports to the effect of the blast could not have happened but for the work of repair and consolidation which had so recently been carried out', referring to the five-year conservation efforts carried on a decade prior. Through its miraculous prevailing through war-torn London, Saint Paul’s Cathedral had become a symbol of national survival through the War, adding well to its already considerable stock of symbolic roles.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 111-115</ref> 

===Improvement in the Post-War to Present era===
[[File: Saint Paul's Night River 2.JPG|x320px|left|thumb|Saint Paul's Cathedral, Shot from Tate Modern. ]]
Following the destruction and devastation met in the 1940s, work to strike a balance between bringing the cathedral into the 21st century and preserving the building as a national landmark has dominated conservation efforts. With this lofty ideal of balance, controversy found a holding in discussions of conservation fairly early on. In 1966, the method approached in cleaning the cathedral's exterior caught criticism from British architectural critic, Ian Nairn. Disgruntled on how the building's upper exterior was cleaned, Nairn complained that "because soot and Portland stone work such a funny magic on each other, St Paul’s should never have been cleaned. The scrubbed parts show a small gain in clarity of detail and an immense loss in personality."<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 117-118</ref> Under Sir Bernard Feilden (Surveyor 1969–77), Saint Paul's gained an elevator, made significant repair to the buildings upper levels, and found itself faced with problems of air pollution and traffic vibration. After a thorough study of the external stonework, Feilden concluded the operation of the Bankside Power Station, built not long after WWII, was responsible for damaging Saint Paul's Cathedral. After shutting down, the Bankside Power Station became modern-day Tate Modern, just across the Thames from Saint Paul's to this day. 
In the following decades, relatively few major conservation works were undertaken until the 1990s. In 1993, Martin Stancliffe (Surveyor 1990-2011) produced a "Quinquennial Report," proposing several immediate and long-term programs of cathedral repair, maintenance and improvement. Most of the major projects of the next two decades were either proposed or hinted at in this Report: stonework repair and cleaning of the exterior, a cleaning of the entire interior, the liturgical reordering and relighting of the interior, and a staged bringing of the entire crypt into public use together with extensive facilities for staff, choir and educational purposes.<ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 118-119</ref> 
Contemporary movements in modernizing and making the city of London an attractive place to live have encouraged further conservation action. Designated in 2007, St Paul’s Cathedral Conservation Area was established to maintain the character of land uses, building and materials types, open spaces and trees, the use of the area for local and national cultural and political events, ecology and archaeology. Along with this, efforts on behalf of the city have been made add and preserve iconic views of the cathedral. Conservation, and with it a degree of controversy, continues to surround Saint Paul's Cathedral into the present day. In spite of these new challenges Saint Paul's Cathedral is dealt, the building continues to to serve as an exemplary space for gathering, reflection, and beauty. <ref>Schofield, J (2016). ''St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history''. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 121-122.</ref>
 

==White Tower==
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref>]]
Located within the fortress of the [[Tower of London]], White Tower presides as one of world's best known castles. Given its name around 1100 C.E., the Tower stands today as the most complete palace in Europe. A brilliant example of Norman architecture, the Tower represents poignant evidence of early 14th century Norman influence in the British Isles. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 44.</ref>Strongly fortified, the square tower perches itself at the center of a defensive work of architecture, evoking stark medieval strength.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64</ref> White Tower stands as London's second largest tower of its age after Colchester tower at four stories connected via angle turrets at the building's corners. <ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 53-54.</ref>Access to the each floor was possible via the circular north-east turret, with the main entrance on the middle floor, on the south face, still used today.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> Over the years, however, the structure itself has been heavily reconstructed to retain its original shape and structure.<ref>Sutton, I. (1999). Western architecture. London: Thames & Hudson. pg. 64.</ref>

However, despite the Tower's imposing reputation, the first legitimate systematic investigation of the structure took place only 20 years ago. From 1996 to 1998, White Tower was emptied for new displays and conservation works on the external south elevation, allowing a thorough rundown of the structure with modern methods for scientific analysis. A second round of investigation was only just recently done in 2008 to 2011, while cleaning and conservation of other cardinal elevations and turrets were taking place. The second analysis served to support earlier findings in 1996-8 and expanded in extent, form, and dating of post-medieval alterations and repairs. Previous to these studies, White tower was widely believed to have had more or less remained largely intact from the late 11th century, while others argued the tower evolved in scale over time. With these investigations findings, historians can settle several mysteries concerning the Tower's original plans and construction. These studies found that the structure was largely completed by circa 1100 C.E., with its final design being conceived from outset of the project. It was discovered that raising the roofs of the east and west rooms of the second floor by a story was the one lasting major alteration made to the building. Lastly, analysis has found that there was a significant pause in the primary construction, midway through the first floor, seen in changes in material and technique and in the sculptural detail of St. John's Chapel. Work apparently began around 1078 but only completed by 1100, with a break from 1079-83 to 1090-3.<ref>Harris, R (2016). ''Castles and the Anglo-Norman World''. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 

==Photography==
In order to understand this projects deliverable, a basic background in photographic techniques is necessary. Specifically, I utilize five major conventions of photography: 1) leading lines, 2) formal balance, 3) framing, 4) simplicity, and 5) rule of thirds.
 
===Leading Lines===
 
Leading lines are fairly self-explanatory. They are quite simply lines within an image that leads the eye to another point in the image, or occasionally, out of the image. An important aspect of leading lines come from the fact that any definite line within an image can serve as a leading line. If can pair leading lines with a subject that is placed according to the rule of thirds, covered below, the resulting image should be very strong.
<ref>Masoner, L. (2017, March 7). Leading Lines - Definition in Photography. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.thespruce.com/leading-lines-2688488</ref>
 
===Formal Balance===
 
Formal Balance refers to placing equal weight and importance to both sides of an image. Also known as symmetry, this technique suggests balance and proportionality, while asymmetrical balance, known as Informal balance, make images more interesting. Informal balance suggests a more casual, dynamic, and relaxed feeling.
<ref>Bartel, M. (1999). Some Ideas About Composition and Design Elements, Principles, and Visual Effects. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.goshen.edu/art/ed/Compose.htm</ref>
 
===Framing===
 
Framing is the technique of drawing attention to the subject of your image by blocking other parts of the image with something in the scene. Framing establishes the images context, gives a sense of depth, lead the eye toward the image's focal point. Frames in images come in all shapes and sizes, including shooting through overhanging branches, shooting through windows, using tunnels, arches or doorways, etc.
<ref>Rowse, D. (2013, October 04). Framing Your Shots - Photography Composition Technique. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://digital-photography-school.com/framing-your-shots-photography-composition-technique/</ref>
 
===Simplicity===
 
Simplicity, in terms of an image, just means keeping everything not important much less interesting than what’s important in the frame. Especially avoid lines or objects that lead the eye away from the subject.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 
===Rule of Thirds===
 
One of the most common and widely known techniques of photography. By dividing the screen into three sections vertically and horizontally, the four intersections serve as the most effective points focus. positioning a subject on these intersections makes for a more interesting and dynamic image.
<ref>Schneider, R. (2009). Photography: The Rules of Composition. Retrieved June 22, 2017, from https://www.picturecorrect.com/tips/photography-the-rules-of-composition/</ref>
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
[[File: St-Pauls-Cathedral-is-ref-007.jpg|x320px|right|thumb|Reference photograph to juxtapose the abundance of post-modern architecture against Saint Paul's more classical style and age demanding respect.<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved May 18, 2017, from http://www.ikoniclifts.co.uk/resources/case-studies</ref>]] 
==Creating and Preserving a Landmark==
In an attempt inform on the influence and presence Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower command as monuments of architectural history, I set about using photography to capture and display visually the various ways these buildings fit into the city of London. Within this, I sought to encapsulate the feeling of reverence towards these structures, each monuments of their respective eras of English history. Saint Paul's Cathedral has retained its current appearance over the past three-hundred forty-two years and White Tower has stood since circa 1100 C.E. With time, naturally comes change. I chose these two unique buildings not simply for their age, but also the perseverance they represent. These buildings stand out against their surroundings, boasting uncommon architectural styles of English Baroque and Norman, respectfully. The goal of this milestone is to answer the question: "How were these structures conserved and what that means?". My answer comes in the form of a comprehensive gallery meant to inform through a deliberate, guided camera lens.
 My approach to White Tower examines the tower's most striking and defining feature, the structure's age. As a direct result of how old White Tower is and appears, every building surrounding the Tower of London serves as a sharp contrast. When compared to a 12th century fortress, buildings like London's Shard and Gherkin look more like science fiction that post-modern architecture. As London's oldest standing structure, the tower has gone through extensive conservation efforts to keep the building stable and operational. My gallery of the White Tower highlights these realities of the tower, each tackling a specific feature. Moving right from the sketched plans for the Tower of London, the gallery's first picture pins the tower between the distant features of the modern urban environment and the closer lush influence of the Tower of London's trees. Through this framing, the white tower allows itself to be perceived as much more of a piece of the landscape, rather than an ornament to it. The second picture simply seeks to portray the tower as a monument to itself. With an age harking back to the middle ages, by picturing the White Tower in this way, the view is draw to examine the preserved stone make-up of the tower raw façade. The third picture highlights the contrasting color and geometry between the tower on left and the tower on the right. This separation in years, styles, and shape all manifest as the physical distant depicted in this shot. The fourth picture presents the same subject matter but this time juxtaposing the two very directly. The light, focus, and composition favors the towering figure of London's Shard above the White Tower. However, the entire Tower of London also appears more vast and stable than the Shard's thin frame. By the use of photography techniques, a picture is able to convey intent alongside the literal material presented. In my gallery for Saint Paul's Cathedral, photographic composure is further emphasized.
 Throughout my background, I detail the conservation methods and approaches to Saint Paul's over the last hundred years, combating and persevering against dilemmas from pollution to air-raids. The legacy of Old Saint Paul's Cathedral survives by its modern equivalent, serving as a place of community, solidarity, and pride for Londoners. In the pictures below, I set about framing the cathedral, in a very real sense, within its modern context. The first picture from the Old Saint Paul's Cathedral sketches catches the cathedral engulfed and absorbed by its environment. With the dark blue shade of the Thames reflecting the light blue of the sky, the whole shot embodies a cohesive theme. While Saint Paul's signature baroque dome defines the city skyline, it doesn't dominate the entire shot. Room is left for other buildings in the distance to mark their shape on the cities outline. Through this, the Saint Paul's Cathedral can be seen as 'one of many.' The next picture serves as a deliberate contrast to the first picture. The sharp handrails of Millennium Bridge lead the viewers' eyes towards that same famous dome with authority. Saint Paul's unique English Baroque architecture and size are emphasized in this shot as the building is framed in an effort to draw in its potential audience, a feature clearly calculated by the bridge's engineers. The gallery's next picture appropriately follows the previous picture's momentum. In this closer shot, more direct comparison can be made between the cathedral and the surrounding architecture. The sharp corners and square geometry of the both sides of the shot oppose, in in that further emphasize, the uncommon smooth curvature and classical influence that Saint Paul's channels. mirroring to the previous picture, the roof of the contemporary buildings serve to direct focus away from themselves and towards the 342-year-old cathedral sitting comfortable at the center of the shot. Departing from the thematic consistency of the first three pictures, the next picture frames Saint Paul's with modern architecting from all sides. The entirety of building seems clearly out of place, standing out as the only white stone building in the shot. Buildings composed of concrete, red brick, glass, and steel dominate the scene's landscape. Metal construction cranes rise on opposite sides of the cathedral while the most striking element of the picture, the overbearing steel beams of the overhead bridge, appears to be completely trap this article of the past in London's urban modernity. The next shot resembles the first picture in many ways but provides a wider scope to take in the city as a whole. From the riverside, London's iconic features are set on display upon a level playing-field; that is to say, Saint Paul's, the Leadenhall Building, and the Walkie-Talkie all appear around the same size against the horizon. Almost the exact opposite of the previous picture, this shot showcases Saint Paul's Cathedral as a vital, defining feature of and testament to London as a capital and international city. The last two pictures of this gallery take a much more personal approach to experiencing Saint Paul's. Before coming to London, I did very little research into the buildings that define the city's skyline. Because of this, I was unsure of what to expect on Wednesday, May 10th, when my group was scheduled to visit Saint Paul's Cathedral. Walking from our flats, my group decided to take a small alley staircase to get to the cathedral quicker. These last two pictures represent how I first saw Saint Paul's Cathedral here in London that Wednesday morning. From the perspective of the alley way, the second-last shot captures much of what the previous pictures have touched on: focused perspective, modern context, unique architecture, London icon, and so on. The last picture in this gallery distinguishes itself with its approach of blatant honesty. The only visible part of Saint Paul's Cathedral is its dome, a pale blue bulb in an otherwise blank sky. The stairs, surrounding buildings, and lampposts all serve to create a frame-within-a-frame, emphasizing the uniqueness of the cathedral against the dark simplistic foreground. Through this lens, the idea of Saint Paul's Cathedral persists. Conservation and preservation efforts over the past three centuries allowed Christopher Wren's masterpiece survive and be revered to this day. Saint Paul's Cathedral isn't simply significant historically and religiously to London, the building itself is physically significant to defining London's shape and character.
 

==Gallery==
 
===White Tower===
[[File: White Tower East Façade.jpg|''East Façade of White Tower within the fortress of the Tower of London'']]<ref>"Hampstead Parochial Church of England Primary School." Hampstead Parochial RSS 092. Hampstead Parochial, n.d. Web. 17 June 2017.</ref> 
[[File: West Elevation (2010-11) CAD Isolation of differnt stone types Historic Royal Palaces Roland Harris.png|West Elevation of White Tower draw in CAD by Roland Harris]]<ref>Harris, R (2016). Castles and the Anglo-Norman World. New York: Oxbow Books., pg. 177-189.</ref> 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Tower of London Plans.JPG|''Tower of London historical plans''<ref>Bradley, S., & Pevsner, N. (2002). London 1: the City of London. New Haven: Yale University Press. pg. 358.</ref>
Image:Between nature and city.JPG|''White Tower framed between its natural and urban setting''
Image:Removed and Proud.JPG|''Significantly removed from its urban context, White Tower stands independent and solitary''
Image:Two different worlds.JPG|''This panorama shot captures the larger urban area to give the impression of two incompatible and incongruous styles on display''
Image:White Tower against the Spire.JPG|''White Tower dwarfed by London's crowning modern centerpiece, the Spire''
</gallery>

===Saint Paul's Cathedral===
[[File: Saint Paul's South Transept.JPG|Saint Paul's South Transept]]
[[File: Photogrammetric Survey of Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall.png|Saint Paul's Cathedral's South Transept's South Wall with color coded mark ups of pieces replaced or repaired dating back 300 years.]]<ref>Schofield, J (2016). St Paul's Cathedral:archaeology and history. New York: Oxbow Books., ch. 4. pg. 119.</ref> 
 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Old Saint Paul Reference 1.JPG|''Old Saint Paul's Reference Sketches''<ref>Johnson, P. (1980). British Cathedrals. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pg. 226.</ref>
Image:Riverside Saint Paul Skyline.JPG|''Riverside Saint Paul Skyline''
Image:Destination Saint Paul's2.JPG|''Modern form of the Millennial Bridge framing towards Saint Paul's''
Image:Crowded Small Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's Cathedral crowded by contemporary buildings''
Image:Saint Paul's Crowded by Modernity.JPG|''Saint Paul's surrounded in contemporary architecture''
Image:Part of the Land Saint Paul's.JPG|''Saint Paul's blending into the London skyline''
Image:Down the Alley.jpg|''Saint Paul's Cathedral's iconic dome highlighted by the alleys narrow features''
Image: Stairway.jpg|''With only the very top of Saint Paul's peaking over the top step, this staircase deliberately channels attention and reverence''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
Architecture is a unique art-form in that it enables architects to instill ideas and ideals into part of the city, defining itself as well as it environment. Because of this, conservation work essentially seeks to preserve the character of the city. Conservation, as a result, defines a city in its attempts to maintain it. London's emphasis on conservation seen in the cases made by Saint Paul's Cathedral and White Tower reflects an attitude of pride and resilience. A cathedral proudly standing for 342 years in place of the even more ancient Old Saint Paul's Cathedral that stood for centuries before it and a medieval castle nearing the age of a millennium deftly preserved and still in use; these two structures stand as monuments to the dedication and determination behind their collective conservation. Both examples of architecture, Norman and English Baroque, remain nearly unseen in London at such a preserved condition. As these structures demonstrate their value on the London landscape in such a physical way, I sought to capture and examine each site's characteristics and defining features through photography, utilizing photographic techniques to emphasize the ideas each building has come to represent. It was a pleasure to examine London architecture on a scale larger than each building itself, and through the lens of visual analysis.
 

=References=
 
<references />
 
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

User:Crfawcett

2017-06-22T13:01:44Z

Crfawcett: /* Overview */

=Cole Fawcett=
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__TOC__

=Overview=
My project as a whole focuses on the gaining a deeper understanding of my surroundings through the analysis of historical views and context here in London. I saw London HUA as an ideal opportunity to look into and study history around me in such a famous, international captial. I've always enjoyed the history, learning from it and gaining a better awareness of how the world has come to be shaped as it has. Overall, I felt privileged to be accepted and take part of the London HUA Project and experience London in such a unique way.
 

=Milestone 1=
 
'''London's Architectural Preservation of History''' 
'''Objective:''' To address and analyze how and why London has successfully preserved and upheld its most ancient landmarks, rescuing them from natural erosion and deconstruction.
 
Through investigating conservation conventions taken in the cases of Saint Paul's Cathedral and the Tower of London's White Tower, I found that conservation as a term has adopted many meanings over the centuries. From simply keeping a building standing, the term evolved to preventative measures on issues of instability and air pollution. Contemporary emphasis has been put on maintaining iconic view of structures as necessary in their conservation. Buildings like Saint Paul's and White Tower have gone on to shape their environments in efforts to keep the structures themselves from changing. Using the visual aid of pictures, this milestone examines how a greater context informs these sites and how these sites have informed their surrounding context.
 
[[London's Architectural Preservation of History|Read More]]
 

=Milestone 2=
 
'''Significance of London's Fourth Plinth''' 
'''Objective:''' A detailed look into the inspiration and consequence of the establishment of London's Fourth Plinth.
 
In this milestone, I analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square and London. Effectively one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, the Fourth plinth has displayed a piece of art atop the plinth at a time, changing every two years or so. My deliverable consisted of an informed argumentative thesis on what the Fourth Plinth Commission represents within Trafalgar Square and London as well. This project's aim was highlight the Fourth Plinth as a unique statement on Trafalgar Square in the spirit of demonstration and critical thought.
 
[[Significance of London's Fourth Plinth|Read More]]
 

=Milestone 3=
 
'''Green Spaces in London''' 
'''Objective:''' An investigation into the presence and proliferation of green spaces, especially parks, within London's city limits.
 
[[Green Spaces in London|Read More]]
 

=Activity Journal=
 
==Westminster Abbey, the Tower of London, and the British Library==
Monday, May 8th, 2017
:Today, as a whole group London HUA group, we visited [[Westminster_Abbey|Westminster Abby]]. I was taken aback by the sheer number of notable and famous figures interned all within the Abbey's walls. The scale of how much history is concentrated in such a place is nothing sort of remarkable. A place where royal marriages occur mere feet from the graves of the likes of Chaucer and Newton.
:[[Tower_of_London|The Tower of London]], specifically the White Tower within, holds the title of London’s oldest standing building. Despite this, or maybe as a result, the building itself seems to almost meld with the landscape. Nearly one thousand years old now, this ancient work of Norman architecture serves as a beautiful juxtaposition against the post-modern design of the city surrounding it.
:Upon entering the doors of the [[The_British_Library|The British Library]], the eye is drawn the library’s crowning centerpiece, The King’s Library. A massive column of an uncountable number of books upon books dated centuries old. A monument to preservation as well as exhibition, this display remains behind thick glass and locked doors as if to all at once tempt and deny such knowledge.
 
 

==British Museum==
Tuesday, May 9th, 2017
 
:[[British_Museum|The British Museum’s]] entrance itself seems to command some classical authority with its Greek inspired mausoleum front entrance. Boasting exhibits across the worlds ancient cultures to exhibits on modern issues, The British Museum deftly and beautifully captures a monumental swath of human history. Nowhere is this more clear than in the museums "Enlightenment Room." Essentially a glorified hallway with the width of a small ballroom, literary works and art from around the world over the 18th century line the museum's enlightenment room's walls. Pieces and works of all kinds in the vein of enlightenment values of a broader worldly understanding emphasize a unique time when the concept of worldly awareness and recording came to global conscience. Ancient atlases, artifacts from distant trade, and art of all types dominate the space to a point that visitors can't help but be totally enveloped in the wonder of human achievement all cooped up in one room.

 
 

==Saint Paul's Cathedral==
Wednesday, May 10th, 2017
 
:[[St._Paul's_Cathedral|Saint Paul’s Cathedral]], as a whole, felt more like a quaint amalgamation of a gallery as well as a cathedral. Art pieces from sculptures to murals to video installations punctuate Saint Paul’s, filling up and adding to an otherwise empty space. These works help bring the cathedral to the modern day in tackling modern issues of immigration, world conflict, and climate change. At the same time as the cathedral exhibits the work of others, the building itself stands as a gorgeous piece of art all its own. Remarkable engineering and inspiring design choices like the cathedral’s Baroque Architecture.
 

==National Gallery==
Thursday, May 11th, 2017 
:[[The_National_Gallery|The National Gallery]] presents an almost Alice-in-wonderland-esque experience of artistic exploration. Working down from the top floor, works from artists like Leonardo De Vinci and Raphael blend into Claude and Titan into Monet and Van Gogh. An almost spiritual silence exists around the works in the National Gallery, which only serves to benefit all those involved. In touring the gallery, I found myself getting lost, quite literally. The Gallery as a whole allows for the slow digestion of how painting and sculpture metamorphosed with the renaissance and movements like impressionism and pointillism. Because of how gigantic the gallery's collection is, the experience as a whole benefits from not simply rushing through every exhibit to see the most art pieces possible. In touring, I felt almost like I was visiting an elaborate indoor park catered by the greatest works of the greatest painters of their time.
 

==Natural History Museum==
Friday, May 12th, 2017 
:Walking through the front doors of London's [[Natural_History_Museum|Natural History Museum]] seemed to transport me back to the visits to the Science Museum back in home in Saint Paul, Minnesota. A clear hands-on experience is encouraged in every single one of the Natural History Museum's exhibits. Whether to simulate how tectonic plates shift and cause earthquakes or to examine what factors account of the formation and stability of a ecosystem's watershed, the museum makes certain there is an interactive component to education within its walls. Designed for energetic infants to curious elderly, The Natural History Museum welcomes all those who seek to share in the science and the knowledge spanning its colossal range of subjects. The museum contains exhibits on the following (just to name a few): Marine biology, prehistoric zoology, ornithology, earth science, human history, and geology.
 
 

==Tate Britain==
Monday, May 15th, 2017
:[[Tate_Britain|Tate Britain]] seeks to concisely consolidate art history from the fifteen hundreds to present day. While efficiently conveying art's turbulent change and reshaping over the last five-hundred years seems an almost insurmountable task, Tate Britain proves more than capable of getting the job done. walking to the end of Tate Britain's central hallway, by tracing a path in an anti-clockwise direction follows the arrow of time starting in the year of our lord 1500. The biggest jump in style can be undisputedly experienced with the turning of the new millennium. Realism gently paired with abstraction muddies into self-aware pure abstraction. For better or worse, walking with the flow of time informs a more complete experience than any one single exhibit could convey. The whole gallery as a whole becomes an almost meta work of art about the art itself.
 
 

==Victoria and Albert Museum==
Tuesday, May 16th, 2017
:The [[Victoria_and_Albert_Museum|Victoria and Albert Museum]] prides itself as a hub of art and style from the medieval to modern age. This museum did a elegant job of dividing exhibit along lines of culture, technique, and age. Yet, the building remarkably remains consistent in its method of presentation, with modern pieces receiving no more of a spotlight than more elderly pieces or visa versa. 
I was particularly drawn to the unique architecture exhibit. Just as a result of how immense and all-emcompassing architecture is as an art form, museums or places similar often have a difficult time displaying architecture in a closed exhibition room. The V&A comes to a balanced compromise between a purely outside or inside experience by propping up elements of historic buildings like doors and pillars along side an architecture photo gallery. These photographs were taken soon after practical photography became more readily available and people were drawn to capture architecture of the day and past in hopes of securing a preservation of these sites. Old German castle ruins to London streets are captured alike on the faded film.
 
 

==Tate Modern==
Wednesday, May 17th, 2017
:An overbearing modern sentiment purveys every inch of [[Tate_Modern|Tate Modern]]. The central room of Tate Modern harkens back to the style of a industrial warehouse devoid of art or ornamentation. Overall, I felt this gallery's out and inward appearance exuded a brutal sense of taking art as seriously as possible. However, I was delighted to find a excited curiosity to every exhibit I had time to visit. One thing I really enjoy about modern art as an experience is the genre as a whole demands a response as much as its pieces. Tate Modern may not be for everyone, but it remains a place were questions continue to be raised and difficult conversations are shared across people of all kinds.
 
 

==Museum of London==
Thursday, May 18th, 2017
:Proving highly self-explanatory, the [[Museum_of_London|Museum of London]] documents and guides visitors through the history of London. Working of fossil records and pre-history artifacts, the Museum of London's top floor dedicated to detailing human life on the land that would become London and its growth through roman invasion and medieval England into the renaissance. The bottom floor documents the economic, fashion, and political changes from the 1840s to 2013. As a whole, this museum offers a well crafted retrospective on what lead to what is now the city of London.
 
 

==Museum of London Docklands==
Monday, May 22nd, 2017
:Along the River Thames, The [[Museum of London Docklands]], like the Museum of London itself, commits itself the exposé of London's complex rich past. Very similar to the Museum of London, we toured the place in following in chronological order staring with the first port on the Thames in Roman times. The museum caught us up all the way to the Seventies when the central London docks closed and transformed into the area it is today, with the development of commercial and residential buildings. Like most of the site we've visited so far, the museum of did a fine job at getting a large amount of information in an entertaining enough way as to not resemble a lecture.
 

==Imperial War Museum==
Tuesday, May 23rd, 2017
:Finding the [[Imperial War Museum]] feels like a journey all itself. Surrounded in tall trees and grass compose an almost pseudo-park around the entirety of the Museum, with the top of the building's dome just barely peeking over the tallest of trees. Entering through the front entrance of the museum was daunting to say the least. Two absolutely gigantic naval cannons point outward from the front entrance. Apparently actually used put on display after being commissioned and used in both world wars on British naval battleships, the two goliaths of military intimidation almost seem to ironically incise and encourage a closer look. 
The museum itself has four floors full of war artifacts and exhibits mainly oriented around the two world wars, including a holocaust and a family in wartime exhibit. Approaching the staircase from the entrance down the central first floor, a vast array of wartime fighter jets across from to WWI to modern day flanked by WWII bombs used against London along with military land vehicles jutting from the balconies of the floors above. I thought the museum preserved spectacle along with the visceral realities of war in the attitudes of its exhibits. the family in wartime exhibit specifically tackles the london experience of the second world war as an un-compromised microcosm from the perspective of a humble single family. While tough to get through, every exhibit presented its subject matter with respect and successfully portrayed not only the facts of wartime but the emotion as well.
 

==Hampton Court Palace==
Wednesday, May 24th, 2017
:Awestruck probably serves as a fair description of my impression after visiting [[Hampton Court Palace]]. The palace kept me throughly impressed for the entire extent of the visit. Once our group arrived, we all picked up handheld audio tour guides to help us navigate the expanse of the palace. Despite, or possibly in spite of, how large and grandiose the palace appeared from the outside, I wasn't so sure the rooms within the building would have enough to make it worth exploring. However, I was pleasantly surprised to find that each room had plenty of rich history of the art displayed, and the work done, and people who lived in the palace. My personal favorite rooms include the royal chocolate room and the palace kitchens. 
The palace audio guides gave us a lot of specific information regarding the places we visited. We learned that the royal chocolate maker apparently worked for two consecutive kings over the course of several decades. An odd detail was that chocolate was served almost exclusively in the form of what could be described as very strong hot chocolate. The palace's kitchens span the entire front left perimeter buildings of the reception courtyard. Apparently food historians continue to use these medieval kitchen rooms to prepare food as they were back in the time of the palaces operation under the monarchy. When we entered the cooking room where the meat is prepared, an overwhelming smell of smoke permitted the entirety of the building as a man slowly cooked what appeared to be two large pieces of ham over a massive fireplace. In order to accommodate for the absurd amount guests the palace would routinely host, these kitchens would have to run like clockwork with upwards of five spits loaded with meat weighing as much as the men who tended them across all the kitchens fireplaces. It was fascinating to even consider the ridiculous amount of planning and work that had to go into simply running the palace on a day to day basis back in the day.
:Lastly, we visited the unbelievable beautiful gardens behind the palace. The main backyard palace garden cuts itself with five spokes branching outwards from the back entrance of the palace. Covered in neatly trimmed grass and lush meticulously managed bushes and trees, the gardens resembled an almost nature persevere rather than a backyard. From what we had time to explore, we saw a group of what we thought were deer, tropical trees, stunning mad-made lakes, and the worlds largest grapevine. Hampton Court Palaces manages to preserve history while at the same time continuing to excel at spectacle.
 

==Horniman Museum==
Thursday, May 25th, 2017
:Humble and honest, the [[Horniman Museum]] never claims to be more than what its is, a gallery of objects from ancient pianos to preserved horse skulls available to the public for all those curious enough to visit. The first room we visited was a space completely and utterly dedicated to one singular purpose: to display in utter glory the dead bodies of animals of all shapes and sizes. Dead voles to a stuffed tiger, the Horseman Museum makes sure its visitors get a close and personal look at the animal kingdom post-mortem. Glass cases and metal wires delicately arrange animals of different kingdoms, species, and genus. Funnily enough, our group came to the conclusion that this museum seemed like the perfect place for small children. Ironically enough, as we left the exhibit, a stampeding gang of what appeared to be first or second graders pushed past us to get to see all the animals the museum would let them stare at before lunch time. 
The other main exhibit free to the public was the musical instrument exhibit. As straight forward as the animal one a floor above, the exhibit consisted of metal stands and glass cases showcasing the multitude of instruments the world has to offer. Tiny tin shakers to ancient harpsichords, the exhibit accomplishes its task of exhibition nicely and without complaint. After having visited all the museum had to offer, our group decided to explore the sizable park surrounding the museum. Besides a beautiful view of the London skyline, a impressive gazebo, and a quaint garden, the park seemed like just a nice place to spend a summer day.
 

==The Wallace Collection==
Tuesday, May 30th, 2017
:[[The Wallace Collection]] imposes itself over the space of entire street block. Previously a townhouse of one Richard Wallace, the collection resembles [[Hampton Court Palace]] more than other collections we've seen. The experience as a whole reminded and felt like to me a very fancy house party, with much less food and people and more art and sculptures. Highlights from the visited included the extensive medieval armor and weapon rooms. One room housed a entire full body knight armor set riding a fully armored horse model, a scene that managed to take up most of the entire room. Besides old portraits and rococo fixings and furniture, the most engaging part of the Wallace Collection for myself was the design aspects seen in the collections lower levels. Busts that utilized different types of stone and materials to recreate a person's likeness in color littered the basement level of the collection. A particularly interesting room studied how armor, weapons, art, and architecture were efficiently reproduced in England's middle ages.
 

==London Science Museum==
Wednesday, May 31st, 2017
:The [[London Science Museum]], just off the aptly named Exhibition Road, can be found right next to previous museums we've visited on this trip including the Victoria and Albert Museum and Natural History Museum. Similar to both of those, the London Science Museum appears at first glance a fairly modest museum with a manageable handful of exhibits. However, I'm positive I could have spent my entire day within the science museum's wall without fully exploring all that was available to explore. And that is just what is free to visit to the public. Exhibits ranged from steam powered engines to early biology to material science and all the way to space science. I found myself especially draw to the information age section of the museum that specialized in compartmentalizing the ways by which technology of all types evolved to what they are today. Cellphones, Radio, Television, the Internet, and more, each with its own corner full of old and fairly new artifacts. The room reminded me of the enlightenment room in the British Museum in its attempt to capture and define a generation of science and advancement all in a finite space for glass cases and information plaques.
 

==Romeo and Juliet at the Globe Theater==
Tuesday, June 6th, 2017
:As a whole, spending the evening at the [[The Globe Theater|Globe Theater]] was a memorable to say the least. Priding itself as a more contemporary performance of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, experience as a whole never failed to be entertaining. I had the unfortunate realization that I had left my ticket for the show at the flats only upon arriving at the gates. Luckily, we had left for the show uncharacteristically and unintentionally early, which left we with 45 minutes to sprint back to the bus station and pray that I had enough time to get back. By some miracle, I was able to make it back to the entrance with a good thee minutes to spare. However in the time between my frantic beeline home and my return, what started out as light drizzling over our heads had transformed into large drops of slow rain. For better or worse, our seat had us right on the edge of the stage, forming something of a mosh pit. Unfortunately, the shape of the globe theater resembles a large donut from bird's-eye-view, with a small roof covering most of the stage but none of where we all were standing. To make matters worse, once the production actually started, the rainy evening decided to kick it up an notch, committing itself into a full on downpour, poised to soak us to the bone.
Most of us had brought light jackets or had bought thin white ponchos but no one had prepared for the sheer torrent of water that dropped on us over the first act. Despite the apparent unpleasantness of the situation, I was able to actually really enjoy most of the first half of the show when I could hear it through the storm. Luckily, the downpour let up through the end of the first act and showed little sign of coming back. Left slightly soaked and chilled as the sun set, the intermission helped everyone prepare to really enjoy the show, as anyone still left standing clearly felt committed to seeing the performance to its end.
The performance itself was incredible. From my impression of the show, the show felt as though it combined elements of cirque du soleil with Shakespearean vocabulary. A little over-the-top at points, I thought though that the play overall was pretty original and charming in its liberties from the original script as well as its faithfulness to it. Modern references paired with Shakespearean prose mixed surprisingly well. In the end I felt the performance and experience around it were unforgettable to say the least.
 

==Stonehenge and Bath==
Thursday, June 8th, 2017
:I had never experienced a bus tour before this trip, so I went into this day-long tour of England with low expectations and blind eyes. I can say with confidence that today, June 8th, was the best day spent in England so far. Our guide, Andrew was the best person to have along our trip possible. He brought humor and knowledge to the trip in a very self-aware way. He genuinely took time to make sure all of us got the most out of each location we visited. As a supervisor to the bus tour as a whole, Andrew did an impeccable job at keeping the mood light and playful, while simultaneously respectful and thoughtful. 
The first site we visited was Stonehenge. I really enjoyed how the attitude around the stones themselves was to successfully convince visitors that the stones were more than just...well, stones. Some admittedly mucky weather failed to ruin our visit to the stones, setting an almost eerie vibe around such ancient and massive rocks. After grabbing some hot chocolate on our way back on the bus, we headed off towards the city of Bath. 
Entering Bath felt like going through the wardrobe into Narnia. Climbing a steep pass and defending a sharp hill, the way to Bath felt like an adventure all itself. The roman architecture and lush green backdrop reminded me of a beautiful city in Italy rather than England. Once a city committed to luxury of the English aristocracy, the city of Bath seems to be a careful combination of equal parts quaint and posh. From the restaurants, to the cathedral, to the baths themselves, Everyone was taken in by the wonder of Bath's charm. 
==Windsor Castle==
Monday, June 12th, 2017
:The first thing that stuck me when we arrived at the castle gates was the peculiar proximity to city life. Off all the palaces and castles we have been graced to visit over this trip, no other one lied so close to stone cobbled city streets. As a residence for the Queen, however, I absolutely understand the convenience such a location provides. I'm fairly certain the Queen lives closer to a McDonnell's than I do back home in Saint Paul, MN. Besides this closeness, entering the castle felt like stepping into a compartmentalized town. The place was littered with gorgeous gardens and medieval castle turrets. After visiting only a little over two weeks ago, a comparison between [[Windsor Castle]] and Hampton Court Palace is impossible to resist. Most likely a result of a large part of the castle still in use by the royal family, the tour of the castle's facilities was fairly straightforward and didn't take too long. Within an hour, most of the group had completed a full visit of what Windsor had to offer. I would never say the visit was anything near boring or too short. I think after so many visits to museums, galleries, palaces, and performances, Windsor Castle served as a well-paced sweet cherry on top of a full London experience.
 

===My Complete Contributions===
====[[Special:Contributions/crfawcett|All of My Created Content and Edits]]====
 
 

[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:Profiles]]
[[Category:2017]]
[[Category:Advisor:Manzo]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T12:53:27Z

Crfawcett: /* Fourth Plinth Chronological Gallery */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|caption = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nations political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding trafalgar square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time,"riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the northern irelands sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such a unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved a ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Directer, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had came in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158 years famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths].. To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art...took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
==Fourth Plinth Gallery==
 
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T12:53:03Z

Crfawcett: /* Fourth Plinth Chronological Gallery */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|caption = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nations political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding trafalgar square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time,"riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the northern irelands sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such a unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved a ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Directer, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had came in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158 years famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths].. To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art...took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
==Fourth Plinth Chronological Gallery==
 
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T12:52:51Z

Crfawcett: /* Fourth Plinth Chronological Gallery */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|caption = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nations political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding trafalgar square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time,"riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the northern irelands sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such a unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved a ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Directer, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had came in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158 years famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths].. To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art...took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
==Fourth Plinth Chronological Gallery==
 
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T12:52:32Z

Crfawcett: /* Section 2: Deliverable */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|caption = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nations political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding trafalgar square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time,"riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the northern irelands sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such a unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved a ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Directer, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had came in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158 years famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths].. To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art...took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
==Fourth Plinth Chronological Gallery==
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them. 
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T12:51:48Z

Crfawcett:

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|caption = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nations political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding trafalgar square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time,"riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the northern irelands sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such a unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved a ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Directer, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had came in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158 years famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths].. To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art...took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
===Fourth Plinth Chronological Gallery===
Each of these sculptures and pieces of art shared the stage of Trafalgar Square, each over their own time. By creating succinct gallery of the plinths occupants in-order over the last eighteen years, the Fourth Plinth Commission is able to be truly appreciated for sheer variety on display. As each embodied the fourth plinth during their commission, Trafalgar Square transformed with them.
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T12:42:56Z

Crfawcett: /* Section 2: Deliverable */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|caption = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nations political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding trafalgar square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time,"riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the northern irelands sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such a unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved a ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Directer, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had came in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158 years famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths].. To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art...took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 
==B==

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 
===Fourth Plinth Chronological Gallery===
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Significance of London's Fourth Plinth

2017-06-22T12:42:02Z

Crfawcett: /* Section 2: Deliverable */

=Significance of London's Fourth Plinth=
by [[User:crfawcett|Cole Fawcett]] 

{{Infobox
|title = Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|x450px]]
|caption = The Fourth Plinth, displaying its most recent commission, ''Really Good'' by David Shrigley
}}

__TOC__

=Abstract=
This milestone analyzed Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and its art commissions as a response to what the square has traditionally stood for. The background consisted of research on the History of Trafalgar Square and the Fourth Plinth's development as one of the worlds smallest contemporary art exhibitions, one piece at a time. My deliverable section of this milestone was a inspired paper on the role of the Fourth plinth in contrasting Trafalgar Square's Imperial original intent and its history of public use to answer the question of whether Trafalgar Square aptly represents London's modern morals and character. Overall, this project to sheds light on how art can saw more about its surroundings than itself and enable us to critically observe our environment.
 

=Introduction=
 
This milestone studies the history behind London's Fourth Plinth and the unique role the plinth plays as a part of Trafalgar Square. I wanted to look at how and why the Fourth Plinth's art commissions, beginning in 1999 running to the present, have continued to raise discussion and debate. While some historians have analyzed Trafalgar Square's relationship to activism and public demonstration, and journalists and editors have investigated the reactions and significance of the Fourth Plinth's commissions, through this milestone I committed to examining the intersectionality between these two studies, supported by a rich historical context. Much of work consisted of finding reputable sources overing the contemporary works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth and effectively creating a coherent history of the Fourth Plinth, from its construction in 1841 to the 20st century.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==History of Trafalgar Square==
[[File: 1850s view of Trafalgar Square with some key differences.JPG|x320px|right|thumb|1850s planned view of Trafalgar Square. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 56.</ref>]]
Trafalgar Square stands in a unique position as a public space in London. The squares signature monuments of George IV on horseback and Nelson's column exude an expression of the country's social and political aspirations. Trafalgar Square intentions was to inspire nationalistic fervor and command international reverence. The square was originally intended as a showpiece, a place to look at and show off to local and foreign eyes alike. Places like trafalgar square, places that serve as their own countries signs of pride, all embody the attitudes and morals of the ruling class, deciding what of and how history is remembered. This interplay between the aristocratic intention and public use would help shape and define Trafalgar square as a place of heated debate, over time fostering a microcosm of the nations political, economic, and ethical issues.
 
The infighting event for the erection of Trafalgar Square occurred on the 21st of October, 1805; the last sea battle of Britain's war with France, appropriately known as The Battle of Trafalgar. Britain's victory established the country as the number one global sea power, sowing the seeds of the establishment of British Empire over the next 100 years. With the death of Admiral Horatio Nelson at such a fortuitous battle, desire for monument to celebrate the battle's Admiral grew. Despite this eagerness, it would take 35 years after Nelson's death for the land outside the south entrance of the National Gallery, just north of the center of London at Charing Cross, to be designated as Trafalgar Square and decided on as the spot for Nelson's honorary "national monument." The actual construction of the square itself took place during 1842 and 1843, running into significantly less problems than the planning and decision-making behind Nelson's monument.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-131.</ref> Besides Trafalgar Square's signature column, four plinths punctuate each corner of the square. The first, a bronze statue commemorating the late George IV, was installed on the squares eastern plinth in 1844. The two plinths on the south side of Trafalgar Square came in the late 19th century, funded by public subscriptions to the square, both depicting famous English war heroes. The south-west plinth was erected first in 1855-6 adorned by a bronze statue of General Sir Charles James Napier. The south-east plinth came five years later in 1861, topped with a bronze Major-General Sir Henry Havelock. <ref>Gater, G. H., & Hiorns, F. R. (Eds.). (1940). St Martin-in-The-Fields, Pt III: Trafalgar Square and Neighbourhood (Vol. 20, Survey of London). London: London County Council.</ref>The so-called fourth plinth, located on Trafalgar Squares north-west corner, was originally built in 1841 to display a sculpture of William IV, but due to lack of funding remained empty all the way up until the very end of the 20th century in 1999.
 

==Protest and Demonstration in Trafalgar Square==
[[File: Great Mass meeting of the Unemployed, 4 March 1934.JPG|x240px|left|thumb|Great mass-meeting of the London's Unemployed, 4 March 1934. <ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 263.</ref>]]
The land where Trafalgar square rests today has long been a politically charged forum for the "State" and "People" to voice their grievances and sometimes celebrate. Entering the 19th century, poor working conditions, urban and rural poverty, and middle class dissension took to the streets in increasingly organized fashion, finding trafalgar square a suitable place for, what was considered at the time,"riotous assembly". While much of rioting and outbreaks of public disorder became infrequent as the economy's upswing after 1850 saw a raised standard of living for the majority of the population, Trafalgar Square continued to serve as a place of meeting and a platform for public demonstration into the 20th century. Political unrest rose in London between 1887 and 1892 with an increased public focus on 'the Troubles', a political, nationalistic conflicted over the northern irelands sovereignty. The incident that came to be known as Bloody Sunday saw protests at Trafalgar Squared turn from hostile to violent police intervention. After such a unsightly event in the square, police oversight increased to assure civil order in and around Trafalgar Square. [[File: Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003.jpg|x240px|right|thumb|Anti-War Protest, 11 September 2003. <ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 116.</ref>]]
At the turn of the 20th century, the square proved a ideal mass outdoor public meeting place to organize and demonstrate against inequality and injustice. Suffragettes took to the square seeking a forum to let their message be heard. In a period of twenty years following World War I, much of the demonstrations in Trafalgar Square reflected the two dominant issues that faced the Labour movement: unemployment, and the fight against fascism. Demonstration in Trafalgar square frequently met high tension from London police enforcement. Undeterred, campaigns for Nuclear disarmament, anti-war campaigns, and free speech protests pervaded the gatherings in Trafalgar square into the 21st century.<ref>Mace, R. (1976). Trafalgar Square: emblem of empire. London: Lawrence & Wishart. pg. 15-232. </ref> The Seventies saw Anti-Apartheid rallies and Gay and Lesbian Rights activism. Poll tax riots dominated the square in the Nineties. Calls and signs protesting against America's Second Iraq war displayed beneath Nelson's Column in 2003.
<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications.pg. 87,88,116.</ref>
 

==The Fourth Plinth==
[[File: Empty-fourth-plinth.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Trafalgar Square's Empty Fourth Plinth<ref>L. (2017, March 27). The next artworks on the Fourth Plinth will be... Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.london.gov.uk/what-we-do/arts-and-culture/art-and-design/next-artworks-fourth-plinth-will-be.</ref>]]

Following its initial construction in 1841, more than 150 years passed with the plinth remaining completely desolate. Not until 1985, would any effort be made to fill this seemingly incomplete aspect of a square so prevalent as a part of London. The Royal Society of Arts(RSA)'s then Directer, Prue Leith, took the initiative to poll the public for nominations on what should populate Trafalgar Square's empty fourth plinth, reigniting a conversation not seriously considered in over a century.<ref>Hargreaves, R. (2005). Trafalgar Square: through the camera. London: National Portrait Gallery Publications. pg. 102-103</ref> After the results had came in, the RSA eventually came to the consensus that there simply wasn't a single piece of art that could aptly represent and take up such a permanent famous location. The Fourth Plinth Project, starting in 1999, served as the RSA's compromise. The plan, rather than commissioning one permanent statue sought to subvert expectation, sought to changing the plinth into exhibition sit with a series of successive contemporary works of art, starting with three pieces by three separate artists. Through this, the RSA successfully cemented the ideals of change and evolution in a place previously exclusive in stressing only tradition and reverence to the past. This solution also didn't solve the dilemma directly but rather exposed it and left the question of what ought to fill such a void left empty for so long. The works exhibited on Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth, as expected and intended, come accompanied with controversy. <ref>Hood, J. (2005). Trafalgar Square: A Visual History of London's Landmark Through Time. London: B T Batsford. pg. 124</ref>Two works stand out of the Fourth Plinth commission's eleven separate pieces as inciting particular critique: Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'' and Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.''
 
===Ecce Homo===
[[File: Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|x320px|right|thumb| Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>]]
As the Fourth Plinth Project's first commission, ''Ecce Homo'' aspired to be the first sculpture to fill Trafalgar Square's 158 years famous empty plinth. The sculpture, as pictured on the right, depicts the chalk-white figure of Jesus Christ, shaved, wearing only a simple cloth around his waist and a gold crown of thorns. The figures size and blatant representation, by itself, are subversive and striking. Reactions from critics ranged from Sir Roy Strong, former director of the V&A Museum and National Portrait Gallery, proclaiming,
"Is it right for Trafalgar Square? The answer must be a resounding No. That square is a great secular pantheon celebrating Britain's imperial glories... Only people totally ignorant of the square's very definite theme could have chosen something so glaringly inappropriate" to Richard Dorment, an Art Critic of the London's Daily Telegraph. Dorment commented on ''Ecce Homo,'' saying, "Disparity in scale between plinth and figure is, like the setting of Trafalgar Square, as important to the meaning of the work as the figure itself. In its exultation of humility, of suffering and of acceptance, it questions the values by which we live our lives. Instinctively we contrast this human-scaled Christ with the giant figures of Sir Charles Napier and General Havelock nearby. Admiral Nelson has been raised on his column so high above mortal men that he is almost invisible... Wallinger's Christ seems to rebuke a city that exalts [Nathan's Column along with the three remaining plinths].. To commission the first work in the series from one of the quirkiest figures in British art...took courage and imagination." 
Penny Egan, Director of RSA, noted how such a work stimulated the public attention about public art and, in so doing, revealed society's strengths and core values. She went on to state the Fourth Plinth project was intended to raise the debate about contemporary sculpture in public places. "The fact that we finally have an occupant on the empty plinth is significant in itself." Starting with a humble representation of Christianity's messiah succeeded in set the precedent of inciting debate and controversy in the Fourth Plinth Projects first commission. Wallinger's sculpture made sure the Fourth Plinth Commissions pushed to demonstrate and make statements using Trafalgar Square as a platform.
<ref>Egan, P. (1999). The Fourth Plinth. RSA Journal, 147(5490), 10-13. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>
 

===Alison Lapper Pregnant===
[[File: Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|x320px|left|thumb|Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>]]
Following the Fourth Plinth Project's original line up of Mark Wallinger's ''Ecce Homo'', Bill Woodrow's ''Regardless of History'', and Rachel Whiteread's ''Monument'', the project was considered successful and it was agreed and, "unanimously recommended that the plinth should continue to be used for an ongoing series of temporary works of art commissioned from leading national and international artists."<ref>Macintyre, J. (2008, August 06). From Beckham to Lapper, the ever-changing cast. Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/art/news/from-beckham-to-lapper-the-ever-changing-cast-887463.html</ref> The Fourth Plinth's fourth commission came in September 2005 in the form of Marc Quinn's ''Alison Lapper Pregnant.'' The piece, pictured right, consists simply of a white marble carved sculpture of Alison Lapper, a reputed English artist born without arms and shortened legs, a condition known as phocomelia.<ref>Saner, E. (2014, August 02). Alison Lapper: 'Disabled people are looked at as a drain on society, and I'm certainly not that' Retrieved June 21, 2017, from https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2014/aug/02/alison-lapper-disabled-people-drain-on-society</ref> Lapper was eight months pregnant when Quinn took the cast of her. <ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref>When ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was announced as the sculpture that would mark the Fourth Plinth Commission's continuation in Trafalgar Square, response varied wildly. While Quinn saw this sculpture as a deliberate counterbalance to "the heavy presence of military images in statues across London, others disagreed with its commission. , "I dislike the Quinn intensely... It's a gloriously fudged decision and they better try and get it right next time.", London's Evening Standard's art critic Brian Sewell stated blatantly. Editor of art magazine The Jackdaw, David Lee, went so far as to call the piece "Ghasty." At the same time however, Jay Jopling, founder of White Cube Gallery which exhibited Quinn, commented on the criticism ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' faced, saying, "I don't see how anyone could find this work sensationalist. It's a major work of art, drawing on tradition and context, very rich and layered." Bert Massie, Chairman of the Disability Rights Commission, wished, "Congratulations to Marc for realizing that disabled bodies have a power and beauty rarely recognized in an age where youth and 'perfection' are idolized."Sandy Nairn, then Director of the National Portrait Gallery, commented on public response to commissions: "At the end of the day it was an artistic judgement."<ref>Leitch, L. (2004, March 16). Art world divided by marble disabled nude. The London Evening Standard. Retrieved June 20, 2017.</ref> ''Alison Lapper Pregnant'' was commissioned proudly atop the Fourth Plinth for 18 months, from the fifteenth of September, 2005 to the fifth of October, 2007.<ref>Alison Lapper Pregnant. (1970, January 01). Retrieved June 21, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/single/alison-lapper-pregnant</ref>

 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
For this milestones deliverable, I sought to write a paper on the Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square. This essay was inspired primarily by the idea of contrasting Rodney Mace's ''Trafalgar Square: Emblem of Empire'' with News Articles and retrospectives on the Fourth Plinth's first and fourth commissions, namely ''The London Evening Standard'' and ''The RSA Journal.'' As both sources speak to similar ideals and their representation in Trafalgar Square, I felt the best means by which to directly comment on these defining features of Trafalgar Square would be in the form of a thesis-driven essay drawing from my research into the square and the plinths respective histories.
 
==The Fourth Plinth's significance to Trafalgar Square==
 
The following is a link to my argumentative essay informed by my research and work done in my deliverable. 
The essay discusses the Fourth Plinth's contribution to the significant influence of the public on Trafalgar Square. 
[[https://londonhuawiki.wpi.edu/images/f/fd/Trafalgar_Square%27s_Fourth_Plinth.pdf Significance of London's Fourth Plinth]]
 

=Conclusion=
 
In this milestone, I covered the context and origins behind the development of the Fourth Plinth Commission and how the temporary commissions and the ideas behind them worked to represent the significance of Trafalgar Square's identity in London. Using the background information I had collected, I wrote a opinionated essay focusing on what the Fourth Plinth uniquely represents, historically and physically. I focused primarily on two sculptures from the Fourth Plinth Commission, and I am confident different interpretations and meaning can be drawn from the Fourth Plinth's history.
 
===Fourth Plinth Chronological Gallery===
<gallery mode="packed">
Image:Ecce-Homo-on-the-fourth-plinth-in-Trafalgar-Square.jpg|''Mark Wallinger's Ecce Homo'' <ref>Ecce Homo - Mark Wallinger. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.stpauls.co.uk/eccehomo</ref>
Image:Regardless of History.jpg|''Bill Woodrow's Regardless of History''<ref>T. (2011, January 21). The Fourth Plinth. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://tentends.tumblr.com/post/2860296129/the-fourth-plinth</ref>
Image:Monument.jpg|''Rachel Whiteread's Monument''<ref>(n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.fineart.ac.uk/works.php?imageid=bt0004</ref>
Image:Alison Lapper Pregnant.jpg|''Marc Quinn's Alison Lapper Pregnant'' <ref>Alison Lapper 20002012. (2012). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://marcquinn.com/artworks/alison-lapper</ref>
Image:Thomas-schutte-Model-for-a-Hotel-2007.jpg|''Thomas Schütte's Hotel for the Birds''<ref>Trafalgar Square's Fourth Plinth. (2009, February 26). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/4838785/Trafalgar-Squares-Fourth-Plinth.html?image=4</ref>
Image:Anthony Gormley One and Other.jpg|''Anthony Gormley's One and Other''<ref>Image 16 | Anthony Gormley: One and Other | Pictures | Pics. (2009, July 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from https://www.express.co.uk/pictures/pics/598/Anthony-Gormley-One-and-Other/9559</ref>
Image: Nelson's Ship in a Bottle.jpg|''Yinka Shonibare's Nelson's Ship in a Bottle''<ref>HMS Victory Returns to Trafalgar. (n.d.). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.yinkashonibarembe.com/press/past/hms-victory-returns-to-trafalgar</ref>
Image:Powerless Structures, fig 101.jpg|''Michael Elmgreen and Ingar Dragset's Powerless Structures, fig. 101''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Elmgreen and Dragset's Fourth Plinth, review. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/9101444/Elmgreen-and-Dragsets-Fourth-Plinth-review.html</ref>
Image:HahnCock.jpg|''Katharina Fritsch's Hahn/Cock''<ref>Sooke, A. (2012, February 23). Mailonline, A. R. (2016, September 29). Now there are two phallic symbols in Trafalgar Square!': Hand with a giant thumbs-up sculpture designed to represent 'positivity' is unveiled on the fourth plinth... but not everyone is impressed. Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3813890/Now-s-two-phallic-symbols-Trafalgar-Square-Hand-giant-thumbs-sculpture-designed-represent-positivity-unveiled-fourth-plinth-not-Londoners-impressed.html</ref>
Image:Gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london.jpg|''Hans Haacke's Gift-horse''<ref>Gift Horse by Hans Haacke on the Fourth Plinth, London. (2015, March 06). Retrieved June 20, 2017, from http://www.urdesignmag.com/art/2015/03/06/gift-horse-by-hans-haacke-on-the-fourth-plinth-london/</ref>
Image:The Fourth Plinth.JPG|''David Shrigley's Really Good''
</gallery>
 

=References=
<references />
 
[[Category:Art Projects]]
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]