=A Comparison of John Locke and Thomas Hobbes=
by [[User:Ekmceachern|Emily McEachern]] 

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|title = A Comparison of John Locke and Thomas Hobbes
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=Abstract=
The goal of this project is to make comparisons between the political philosophy of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. These two men represent very different schools of thought on political philosophy and this project will explore the reasons for these differences. Most people have different opinions on Politics and political philosophy due to its controversial nature. In my opinion it is very important to understand the reasons behind people's viewpoints in order to be able to make an informed decision about ones own political views. At WPI I have taken 2 history courses and 1 philosophy course, HI 1332, HI 2332, and PY 1731. I have never done a philosophy project like this before on my own so it should be an interesting and challenging experience.
 

=Introduction=
 
This project aims to make comparisons between John Locke and Thomas Hobbes, who were very opposite in their philosophical views. These two men played very important roles in the foundations of political philosophy and it is important to understand how their opinions were formed so distinctly different from each other, at the same time period. I have also included my own opinions on what I have read, and which argument I believe is the most valid and truthful. In PY 1731 we did not cover political philosophy very much, and it is something that I wanted to continue learning about. Completing this project was new to me because I had to find philosophical texts to read and develop an aim for a project on my own rather than having someone give me things to read and questions to write about.
 

=Section 1: Background=
==Historical Context==
To better understand the reasons behind the beliefs of John Locke and Thomas Hobbes it is important to identify some historical context of the time period. The Enlightenment was beginning during the times that these two men lived, and the Scottish Enlightenment specifically had an influence on Locke's ideas. While the Scottish Enlightenment influenced Locke's ideas it is important to make distinction between the Enlightenment in Scotland and the French Enlightenment, so the background contains information on both. The English Civil War also played an important role in shaping the political theory of the two men, and was a major event going on at the time of their lives.
 
===The Age of Enlightenment===
The exact dates of the time period may vary among historians but the general consensus is that it took place between 1685-1815. Enlightenment thinking was characterized by a person creating their own ideas, rather than just following ideas of other intellectuals. Enlightened thinking was not about what a person thinks, it was more about the way a person thinks<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>. Enlightenment thinkers didn't accept things just because of the authority of the person saying them, they accepted ideas because of this authority and their own ideas on the issue at hand. An unenlightened thinker will accept an idea simply because a figure of authority said it, showing faith in authority. However, an enlightened thinker will only accept an idea after they themselves have considered it with their own ideas in mind. For this reason, religion, christianity in particular, were highly scrutinized during the Enlightenment<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>. This does not mean that all Enlightenment thinkers were anti-religious, it just meant that they believed in a more rational form of their religion and supported the "demystification" of religion<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>.
 
During the Age of Enlightenment Immanuel Kant believed that there was a social aspect to the Enlightenment due to the need for freedom. He believed that the freedom of will and the freedom to operate a certain way in a society were both necessary for Enlightenment to occur<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>. Kant believes that a person should have the freedom to publish the work that they want to, have it be open to criticism of the public, and be able to respond to that criticism publicly<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>. This is a reason why the Age of Enlightenment is referred to as an age of toleration. If a man of authority did not agree with the work of a man of less authority it didn't matter because there was no constraints on what could be published or written at the time<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>.
 
===The Scottish Enlightenment===
The Scottish Enlightenment specifically influenced Locke's work and ideas as well as the formation of the U.S. government. The Scottish Enlightenment resulted in many great accomplishments, despite the loss of the Scottish court in 1603 and its Parliament in 1707<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>. The countries well established universities in St. Andrews, Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Aberdeen contributed to the great thinking of the time. These universities were teaching the ideas of Rene Descartes and the mathematics of Isaac Newton before the Enlightenment began<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>.
 
The Scottish Enlightenment was only part of the wider movement of the Age of Enlightenment across Europe. The majority of people who formed the Scottish Enlightenment were professors, ministers, and lawyers. Some of the major philosophers of the movement included David Hulme and Dugald Stewart, where Stewart was a leader in the Scottish school of common sense philosophy<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>. One of the most important social theorists of the time was Adam Smith, who wrote ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'' which was an outstanding work of economics and social theory<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>. The lawyers of the time period included Lord Kames and John Erskine and were heavily influenced by the work of Stair and Mackenzie. Scientists of the Scottish Enlightenment like Alexander Monro primus and Alexander Mondro secondus helped to make Edinburgh a medical centre through their work as medical professors<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>. A central feature to the Scottish Enlightenment was the formation of societies by the thinkers mentioned previously, where they could explain their ideas to other thinkers of the time.
 
A common belief of Enlightenment thinkers was that progress comes slowly, if it even comes at all, and that it must be defended in order to be retained<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>. Thinkers of the time believed that society could not sit back after achieving progress because this progress must be defended in order to have further progress. Hume and Ferguson, among many others, wrote on this idea and also believed that humans were no where near coming to a perfect society<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>. Another common belief of the time was that all of the sciences together as a whole form a kind of unity. Hume wrote about the subject saying that all sciences lead back to a "science of man"<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>, meaning that human nature is a principle for the unity of sciences. Hume also wrote about how the natural world could not continue that way it does without humans because humans interact with the world directly. This is his reasoning for all of the sciences linking back to human nature<ref name="scottish">Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.</ref>. Human nature was also explored by other philosophers of the time, like Thomas Reid, and all of these ideas would later influence John Locke's thinking.
 
===The French Enlightenment===
The Enlightenment truly began in Great Britain but the movement later exploded in France during the 18th century. One of the important origins of the French Enlightenment was the tension between mercantilists and anti-mercantilists. The expansion of the economy and Royal Authority had been happening since the end of the Hundred Years War in France and created a burden among citizens of the countryside who were heavily taxed<ref name="french">Rothkrug, L. (2015). Opposition to Louis XIV: The Political and Social Origins of French Enlightenment. Princeton University Press.</ref>. The differences between mercantilists and anti mercantilists were further intensified when religious and philosophical issues were injected into the arguments of both sides. Mercantilist views were slowly made to be a part of the legislation in France which sparked intellectual dissent to turn into political opposition<ref name="french">Rothkrug, L. (2015). Opposition to Louis XIV: The Political and Social Origins of French Enlightenment. Princeton University Press.</ref>. Questions about taxes and fiscal exemptions also intensified tensions between the French monarchy and members of the Aristocracy. Organized opposition to the government formed during the reign of Louis XIV, especially after the works of John Locke became available to the general population<ref name="french">Rothkrug, L. (2015). Opposition to Louis XIV: The Political and Social Origins of French Enlightenment. Princeton University Press.</ref>.
 
Intellectual thinkers of the French Enlightenment became known as Philosophes. Philosophes praised the work of John Locke and Isaac Newton and rejected Christianity, causing the church to hate them and what they stood for<ref name="french">Rothkrug, L. (2015). Opposition to Louis XIV: The Political and Social Origins of French Enlightenment. Princeton University Press.</ref>. During the French Enlightenment there was also a great improvement in the literacy of the country. One of the great thinkers of the time was Baron de Montesquieu, who got a lot of inspiration from Locke's work and was one of the first people to write about a system of checks and balances which can be seen in the U.S. government today<ref name="french">Rothkrug, L. (2015). Opposition to Louis XIV: The Political and Social Origins of French Enlightenment. Princeton University Press.</ref>. Another major figure of the Enlightenment was François-Marie Arouet, also known as Voltaire, who was a writer who became known for his wit and satire.
 

===The English Civil War===
The English Civil War, which took place between 1641 and 1653, was a series of armed conflicts between Parliamentarians and Royalists in the British Isles. The era of the British Civil War began when a large group of Scottish people rejected King Charles I's religious policy. This caused a series of rebellions in England, Ireland, and Wales that challenged the rule of the King<ref name="civil war">Bennett, M. (2009). The English Civil War. The History Press.</ref>. The war seemingly began because of religious disputes, however the King's relationship between the three parliaments of the British Isles were questioned and caused political revolutions in 1638-1640 in Scotland and England, before the Civil War actually began<ref name="civil war">Bennett, M. (2009). The English Civil War. The History Press.</ref>. These rebellions developed into deeper of the political representation currently in place as well as social structure.
 
King Charles I's determination to push religious uniformity onto the four nations that made up the British Isles caused rebellions across Scotland in 1637. Charles's response to these events was to treat them as unwarranted rebellion<ref name="civil war">Bennett, M. (2009). The English Civil War. The History Press.</ref>. After some time King Charles realized he had been losing control over his subjects and began to prepare for war against them. During the eleven years of Civil war, the war was constant in Ireland while in the other three nations fighting was much more sporadic. The first battle of the English Civil War took place at Edge hill in October 1843, but because both armies fighting were so inexperienced they had to end the battle with no winner<ref name="civil war">Bennett, M. (2009). The English Civil War. The History Press.</ref>. In 1643 there was also an attempt at negotiations with the King to get the Catholic religion and property rights of Catholics recognized in government<ref name="civil war">Bennett, M. (2009). The English Civil War. The History Press.</ref>. The King surrendered to the Scots in 1646 hoping to drive a wedge between the Scots and the English allies. King Charles I was eventually handed over to the English Parliament by the scots and was imprisoned, marking the end of the first English Civil War<ref name="civil war">Bennett, M. (2009). The English Civil War. The History Press.</ref>.
 
The Second English Civil War was fought in England and Ireland during the spring and summer of 1648. By the end of this war everyone had realized the King was a major problem that needed to be dealt with<ref name="civil war">Bennett, M. (2009). The English Civil War. The History Press.</ref>. Parliament reopened discussions with the King, but some people with more radical views wanted him to be brought to trial for what he had done<ref name="civil war">Bennett, M. (2009). The English Civil War. The History Press.</ref>. A High Court of Justice was created by the House of Commons to try Charles. When the House of Lords objected to this the Commons declared that they were the supreme government of the nation. Charles was tried and executed and the monarch was abolished along with the House of Lords. This made England and Wales a free Republic and State<ref name="civil war">Bennett, M. (2009). The English Civil War. The History Press.</ref>. Later, in 1652 after more fighting between the nations, Scotland and Ireland were incorporated into the new Republic and the war was deemed over<ref name="civil war">Bennett, M. (2009). The English Civil War. The History Press.</ref>.
 

==John Locke==
 
=== Early Life and Education===
John Locke was born in 1632, 44 years after Thomas Hobbes was born, and died in 1704<ref name="locke bio">Bourne, H. R. (1969). The life of John Locke. v.1.</ref>. Locke's father, also named John, was a lawyer and later a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian forces during the early parts of the English Civil War. During Locke's youth he studied writing and Latin, and also began thinking about some of the important philosophical questions of the time. This is attributed to the fact that his father was so involved in the Civil War and the army that was defying against Charles I<ref name="locke bio">Bourne, H. R. (1969). The life of John Locke. v.1.</ref>. As a young boy Locke attended Westminster School and was awarded the honor of becoming a King's Scholar in 1647. Locke then went on to attend Christ Church, Oxford although he did not enjoy the curriculum of the time and condemned the teaching methods that he went through in his work ''Thoughts Concerning Education"<ref name="locke bio">Bourne, H. R. (1969). The life of John Locke. v.1.</ref>. Locke preferred more modern philosophy to the classical teaching that were taught at Oxford. Locke received his bachelor's degree in 1656 and his master's degree in 1658. He also received a bachelor's degree in medicine in 1675 after studying medicine extensively during his time at Oxford<ref name="locke bio">Bourne, H. R. (1969). The life of John Locke. v.1.</ref>.
 

===Political Theory===
[[File:Two treatises.jpg|thumb|John Locke's ''Two Treatises of Government'']]
John Locke's political philosophy was guided by his religion and religious commitments. He believed that through reason people can determine that a God does exist and that there are laws that his existence entails. Something important to note about Locke is that he did believe God exists but he never specifies in his work which God he is writing about.
 
One of John Locke's most famous writings is his work ''Two Treatises of Government'' published in 1689, which is considered to have played a major role in the formation of modern democracy and the Constitution of the United States. Within the first sentence of the introduction, Locke had already taken a stand on slavery, calling it "vile and miserable an estate of man, and so directly opposite to the generous temper and courage of our nation" <ref name="two treatises">Locke, J., & Locke, J. (2005). Two treatises of government ; and, A letter concerning toleration. Stilwell, KS: Digireads.com Pub.</ref>. In the first part of his book Locke criticizes Sir Robert Filmer's work ''Partiarcha'' by saying that Filmer implies all men are slaves to a divine king. According to Locke, Filmer's system is "That all government is absolute Monarchy"<ref name="two treatises">Locke, J., & Locke, J. (2005). Two treatises of government ; and, A letter concerning toleration. Stilwell, KS: Digireads.com Pub.</ref>, and he interprets Filmer's argument to mean that no man is born a free man and therefore, all men are slaves. Locke uses the ''First Treatise'' to refute Filmer's argument, which Locke says that he cannot support because he believes in reason and that every man has the right to govern himself according to God's law.
 
Chapter VII of the second treatise in Locke's book, summarizes his beliefs regarding Political or Civil Societies. He writes "Those who are united into one body, and have a common established law and judicature to appeal to...are in a civil society one with another" <ref name="two treatises">Locke, J., & Locke, J. (2005). Two treatises of government ; and, A letter concerning toleration. Stilwell, KS: Digireads.com Pub.</ref>. This means that to have a civil society there must be a commonly accepted law within a group of people, and if no common law is present people are considered to be in just a state of nature. In the end he comes to the conclusion that three things are necessary to be considered a civil society: a common established law, a body that is impartial that will give judgement, and power of the people to support the judgements of the body. In this section of the book he also argues that absolute monarchy is inconsistent with the definition of civil society.
 
Chapter VIII deals with the beginnings of political societies. Locke states that once a community is formed, "the body should move that way whither the greater force carries it, which is the consent of the majority" <ref name="two treatises">Locke, J., & Locke, J. (2005). Two treatises of government ; and, A letter concerning toleration. Stilwell, KS: Digireads.com Pub.</ref>. This means that the best, and necessary, way to govern a community is through a majority ruling. It is impossible to remain as one body and community without a majority rule, according to Locke. Under one government, each person has a responsibility to submit to whatever decision has been made by the majority of the group, even if they disagree with the decision.
 
Later in the book Locke writes what he believes is the extent of legislative power. Unlike Filmer, who he earlier criticized Locke believes that government, specifically the legislative branch of government, does not have absolute power. He writes, "No body has an absolute arbitrary power over himself, or over any other...[to] take away the life or property of another" <ref name="two treatises">Locke, J., & Locke, J. (2005). Two treatises of government ; and, A letter concerning toleration. Stilwell, KS: Digireads.com Pub.</ref>. Locke believes that the government has a limit to their power and that they must only use this power for the public good of the people of their society. He also says that the legislative power is not allowed to take property of anyone without that persons consent. The main premise for this argument is that people have rights to their own property and if the government had the ability to simply take anything without consent people would not truly own any property themselves. Extending this even further Locke writes that legislative government representatives cannot place taxes on citizens without their consent.
 
Locke's system of government states that there needs to be a Legislative Branch, Executive Branch and Judicial Branch of the government, clearly this is how the United States government is divided. Locke writes that the legislative power does not need to always be in session creating new laws, because they will have a "constant and lasting force"<ref name="two treatises">Locke, J., & Locke, J. (2005). Two treatises of government ; and, A letter concerning toleration. Stilwell, KS: Digireads.com Pub..</ref>. However, he does believe that it is the job of the executive power to "see to the execution of the laws that are made, and remain in force"<ref name="two treatises">Locke, J., & Locke, J. (2005). Two treatises of government ; and, A letter concerning toleration. Stilwell, KS: Digireads.com Pub.</ref>. This means that the executive branch of the government must always be active, in order to always be enforcing the laws passes and developed by the legislative government, according to Locke.
 

===Other Beliefs===
In Locke's work ''Two Treatises of Government'' he includes some of his beliefs about man to lay the foundation for his own political theories. He believes that men are born in "a state of perfect freedom" <ref>Locke, J., & Locke, J. (2005). Two treatises of government ; and, A letter concerning toleration. Stilwell, KS: Digireads.com Pub.</ref> and that people can do what they believe is right with themselves and their possessions. He believes that men are born equal by nature and not a single man is automatically given power over another man. He also writes that the total freedom of man does not include the "liberty to destroy himself, or so much as any creature in his possession" <ref>Locke, J., & Locke, J. (2005). Two treatises of government ; and, A letter concerning toleration. Stilwell, KS: Digireads.com Pub.</ref>. Locke also believes that everyone has the right and responsibility to punish any violator of the "law of nature" <ref>Locke, J., & Locke, J. (2005). Two treatises of government ; and, A letter concerning toleration. Stilwell, KS: Digireads.com Pub.</ref>. He also questions the rights of royalty to put to death or punish criminals who commit a crime in their country but are not from their country, which to many people at this times is a strange and new idea.
 
John Locke disagreed with the concept of full paternal power. He believed that power over children should be shared equally between the two parents and not all on the father, he calls this concept parental power rather than paternal power. He also says this power is a temporary jurisdiction over children that they grow out of when they become adults. Locke writes that age brings both freedom and rationality.
 

==Thomas Hobbes==
 
===Life===
Hobbes was born on April 15th, 1588 and died one December 4th, 1679. Hobbes' father was a clergyman in a very small and poor village parish and was convicted for crimes against the church. This likely made Hobbes' anticlerical tendencies even stronger the they already were<ref name="hobbes bio">Sorell, T. (1996). The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes. Cambridge University Press.</ref>. Hobbes attended Oxford and one of the things he wrote about his time there was that he preferred to read about explorations and the discovery of new land rather than Aristotelian logic and physics<ref name="hobbes bio">Sorell, T. (1996). The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes. Cambridge University Press.</ref>. Directly after Hobbes graduated he was hired as a tutor for William Cavendish, a very rich land owner who had been made a baron in 1605 and was to become the first earl of Devonshire in 1618<ref name="hobbes bio">Sorell, T. (1996). The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes. Cambridge University Press.</ref>. Hobbes taught the William Cavendish's son who was also named William Cavendish and who would become the second earl of Devonshire. During his time with the Cavendish family, Hobbes acquired intellectual interests in politics and natural science. Later on in his life Hobbes fled to Paris as did many other Royalists during the English Civil War which led him to write and publish his famous work ''Leviathan''<ref name="hobbes bio">Sorell, T. (1996). The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes. Cambridge University Press.</ref>.
 

===Political Theory===
[[File:Leviathan.jpg|thumb|''Leviathan'' by Thomas Hobbes]]
Although he lived during the same time as John Locke, Thomas Hobbes's ideas were essentially opposite of the ideas and beliefs of Locke's. Hobbes was considered a royalist who supported a monarchy, where Locke, as stated above, disapproved of an absolute monarchy. Hobbes's writings in ''Leviathan'', which was published in 1651, aim to show his perspective on the type of government that will create a civil and peaceful society. The text itself is split into four different sections: of man, of commonwealth, of a christian commonwealth, and of the kingdom of darkness. The first part of the book, "of man", contains most of the main points of his philosophical argument and the other three parts attempt to strengthen his arguments by extending them and further clarifying them.
 
The majority of Book I is concerned with human nature and Hobbes's beliefs about science and the mind. Later on in the book, in Chapter 10 titles "Of Power, Worth, Dignity, Honor, and Worthiness" Hobbes writes about the concept of power and humans drive to achieve power. He writes, "The power of a man, (to take it universally,) is his present means, to obtain some future apparent good. And is either original or instrumental" <ref>Hobbes, T., & Gaskin, J. C. (2008). Leviathan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>. He splits power into two categories, natural (original) and instrumental. Natural power is obtained from the "faculties of body, or mind" <ref>Hobbes, T., & Gaskin, J. C. (2008). Leviathan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> where strength and art are examples of natural power. Instrumental power is power that is acquired from the use of a persons faculties. Wealth, friends, and reputation are examples of instrumental power. He describes the worth or value of a man as being how much power that individual has. Dignity is defined as the publicly recognized worth of a man. Also, a person of high worth is considered honorable and a person of low worth is considered dishonorable, according to Hobbes.
 
Hobbes defines a "Law of Nature" as something that can be discovered through logical reasoning. According to Hobbes, a natural law is very different than a civil law because a civil law must be written down for all to know and understand, but a natural law can be deduced by anyone using their mental abilities and therefore does not need to by written down or publicized. The first Natural Law or the fundamental Law of Nature is, "That every man, out to endeavor Peace,, as farce as he can hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, the he may seek, and use, all helps and advantages of War" <ref>Hobbes, T., & Gaskin, J. C. (2008). Leviathan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>. This natural law calls on us to seek peace because seeking peace helps us fulfill out natural right to defend ourselves. The second law is written, "That a man be willing, when others are so too (as farre-forth, as for Peace, and defense of himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down this right to all things; and be contented with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himself" <ref>Hobbes, T., & Gaskin, J. C. (2008). Leviathan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>. This law is a contract between people and states that there is a mutual transference of rights based on moral obligation. Hobbes also states that this will help us escape a natural state of war. He also writes many other laws that directly follow from these two, which he often did in this fashion.
 
Chapter 20 of Leviathan is focused on contractual sovereignty. Hobbes argues that a person who comes to power by universal consent is able to gain power because the people of the commonwealth fear each other. Similarly, a person who gains power by using force is able to because of people's fear for him. Hobbes is very fascinated and concerned with the idea of fear and talks about it very often in his writings. Hobbes also discuses liberty under a sovereign power and defines being a freeman as, "in those things, which by his strength and wit he is able to do, is not hindered to do what he has a will to do" <ref>Hobbes, T., & Gaskin, J. C. (2008). Leviathan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>. He also writes that the terms freedom and liberty cannot be applied to anything but "bodies". By Hobbes' definition of freedom, everyone under sovereignty must have absolute liberty because the only way a person can physically not be able to do what they wish is to by chained or imprisoned in some way.
 
Hobbes reiterates many times that he uses leviathan as a metaphor for an artificial person and examines the systems of the artificial body represented by Leviathan. A system is defined as, "any numbers of men joined in one interest" <ref>Hobbes, T., & Gaskin, J. C. (2008). Leviathan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>. There are two types of systems according to Hobbes. A regular system is when the body of the system is represented by one specific person or a group of people. The members of the system are contractual subjects of the representative, according to Hobbes. An irregular system is one where this representation is nonexistent.
 
To end Book II of ''Leviathan'' Hobbes, writes about the necessity of following the philosophy of his book. He stresses the point that one must know the laws of God in order to avoid divine punishment. It is also important to understand how the laws of God relate to the laws of the sovereign power.

=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
==Locke vs. Hobbes==
 
====State of Nature====
Both Thomas Hobbes and John Locke write a lot about humans natural state, however the results of their thinking and writing are dramatically different. Hobbes argues that people are selfish and only concerned with obtaining power and will do anything to get this power. Unlike Hobbes, John Locke has a much more complex view of humans state of nature. Locke recognizes that there is a God but does not specify which religion this God comes from. He argues that our natural state is maintained by laws set by our creator and that humans are not only concerned with the success of themselves, but we are also concerned with the success of our society.
 

====Freedom====
Although they have very different opinions most of the time, some general similarities can be found in the works of John Locke and Thomas Hobbes. Both men do agree that freedom is a necessity that people deserve, but they disagree on the definitions of freedom. Hobbes argues that it is possible to have liberty and freedom under an absolute monarchy, while Locke disagrees completely. Hobbes believes that freedom means a person has the physical ability to what they want, and that freedom can only be applied to a physical body. Locke argues that freedom is the ability to do with themselves and their property what they believe is right. Something important to note is that John Locke also believes that everyone is born free regardless of who they are.
 
====The need for society====
Both men do agree that creating or joining a civil society is necessary for all people. It is clear that they disagree on what kind of government this society should have but both agree that it would not be possible to have a functioning world if no society existed.
 
====What made these differences?====
 
==My reflections==
After thoroughly examining both ''Leviathan'' and ''Two Treatises of Government'' I believe that John Locke's argument is most valid and truthful. Locke's ideas are very similar to the contemporary philosophy of many. His writings also helped the United States form our constitution and system of government. Being a citizen of the United States and learning about the U.S. government since elementary school, it certainly doesn't surprise me that I agree with Locke's ideas over Hobbes. However, being an American is not the only reason I agree with his ideas, Locke uses very strong logical reasoning patterns that I cannot dispute, while in Hobbes's argument there are some holes.
 
Much of Hobbes's work is based upon the idea of fear, and the belief that people fear each other and their leader. He wrote that a person can come to power through universal consent because people of the society fear each other. I strongly disagree with this, I do not decide who I am going to vote for in government because I fear people with different opinions than my own, I decide who I want to govern our country because of my personal beliefs. Fear may be a driving force for some, but it is not valid to make the statement that fear is motivation for all. Hobbes's criticism of human's natural state is harsh and an oversimplification of human nature.
 
I also disagree with Hobbes's concept of freedom. He says that freedom is a physical thing that can only be obstructed by being physically imprisoned or restrained. This completely ignores the concept of freedom of speech. Hobbes writes that freedom and liberty can only be applied to bodies, but Freedom of speech is a concept regarding the mind. Hobbes's belief that it is possible to have freedom under an absolute monarchy is also something that I disagree with. In a society ruled by an absolute monarchy, the King or Queen that rules the country can do whatever they want to and will not be restricted by laws or customs. Under this type of government, which has no set laws a monarch must follow, it is impossible to have freedom because a person cannot know if their actions will be punished when their government has the right to do anything they wish.
 
I strongly agree with John Locke's ideas that in a civil society a majority rule is necessary for the success of the community or society. It is obvious that not all people of a large society will have all of the same opinions and beliefs, so a majority rule is the best way to keep a group of people together.

=Conclusion=
 
In this section, provide a summary or recap of your work, as well as potential areas of further inquiry (for yourself, future students, or other researchers).
 
=References=
#Hobbes, T., & Gaskin, J. C. (2008). Leviathan. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
#Locke, J., & Locke, J. (2005). Two treatises of government ; and, A letter concerning toleration. Stilwell, KS: Digireads.com Pub.
#Bourne, H. R. (1969). The life of John Locke. v.1.
#Sorell, T. (1996). The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes. Cambridge University Press.
#Broadie, A. (2010). The Scottish Enlightenment (Vol. 80). Canongate Books.
#Rothkrug, L. (2015). Opposition to Louis XIV: The Political and Social Origins of French Enlightenment. Princeton University Press.
#Bennett, M. (2009). The English Civil War. The History Press.
 

[[Category:Philosophy & Religion Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]

Counterculture Through The Ages

2017-06-20T20:56:56Z

Ekmceachern:

=The History of Counterculture=
by [[User:Ekmceachern|Emily McEachern]] 

{{Infobox
|title = The History of Counterculture
|bodystyle = width:25em
|image = [[File:The_1960s.jpg|x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]
|caption = Counterculture of the 1960s
}}
=Abstract=
This project aims to give an understanding of what counterculture is and its complexity through the use of examples found in history. Also, it attempts to identify the various countercultures of today. When people think of counterculture most of the time hippies and the 1960s will pop into their head, but time periods like the Enlightenment are also considered counterculture by its definition. I hope that after reading this project people will understand the complexity of counterculture in the 1960s as well as in other time periods. At WPI I have taken 2 History courses and 1 Philosophy course: HI 1332, HI 2332, and PY1731.
 

=Introduction=
 
The goal of this project was to understand the complexity of counterculture and try to identify what the counterculture of today is. Many books have been written by historians about the history of counterculture but I did not come across many in my research that also attempted to identify what today's counterculture is. Counterculture can be purely political, cultural, or a combination of both so it is very important to be able to distinguish the different kinds of counterculture along with their methods and motivations when trying to understand a movement as a whole.
 
As a disclaimer, I understand that there are many more countercultures and subcultures of the present day that I did not mention in the deliverable section. If I had tried to include every single one I would certainly not have enough time, so I identified ones that were the most interesting to me. Similarly, I am also aware that there are many more countercultures throughout history that are not included in the background section and was not able to include each one for similar reasons.
 

=Section 1: Background=
 
==What is Counterculture?==
As a forewarning I would like to address that counterculture is an extremely complex subject and through this project I will only be able to just touch upon the surface of history's rich and plentiful countercultural movements. The definition I have given below cannot possibly cover all countercultures in history but it will cover the ones that I talk about throughout the rest of the project.
 
A counterculture "rejects or challenges mainstream culture or particular elements of it" <ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Most modern countercultural actions aim to show opposition, disagreement, or rebellion towards the current culture in place. Counterculture is often displayed through protesting against a particular issue, rebelling against an established way of doing things, trying to overcome oppression, and even creating a new culture when the one in place becomes dissatisfying<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Methods used to express countercultural points of view are meant to promote action and provoke changes among people. Often the unacceptability of counterculture is eventually taken as a normality by the general population and considered mainstream culture. This also makes it very difficult to identify a counterculture until a few years after it has originated. It is also important to note that there are different kinds of counterculture, and this project will focus mainly on cultural and political counterculture. In the sections below I have included a few of the modern methods people use to express their countercultural point of view.
 
===Methods===
 
====Demonstration====
[[File:1960s sign (15).jpg|100px|thumb|Demonstration in the 1960s]]
Demonstation is used as a way for people to come together to physically protest against a particular situation that they do not agree with<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Demonstrations can sometimes turn into violent riots, but in general they are one of the more peaceful forms of taking direct action against something. Peace protests have emerged to oppose the threat of war and even the development of dangerous technologies such as nuclear technology<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>.
 

====Civil Disobedience====
Historically, the people participating in peace movements have been split on the decision whether to take more radical approaches of protest, like civil disobedience, or less radical ones like demonstration. Civil disobedience, like demonstration, is a form of direct action, but it differs from demonstration because laws are broken in order to force an issue onto a political stage<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. People that agree with civil disobedience argue that small crimes, like the disruption of streets, are justified because they are protesting a much large crime or issue, like war or environmental damages. However, in the eyes of authorities, the breaking of a law is never okay and participants of civil disobedience are often treated as trespassers.
 
In England, the philosopher Bertrand Russell was an advocate for civil disobedience and participated in sit-ins as a founder of the Committee of 100<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. The Committee of 100 was organized to protest against the Vietnam War and Nuclear weapons. The Committee believed that personal risk and responsibility were vital to successful movements. A sit in uses disruptions to attract attention to the cause that is being protested against. During a sit in protestors will sit in an area and refuse to move until their wants are met or they are removed by the authorities<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. This method of protest was first used by Mahatma Gandhi and later adopted by others like Martin Luther King Jr. during the Civil Rights Movement.
 
Civil disobedience was also used by some of Bertrand Russell's Committee of 100 in the 1960s to find out and expose secret government information. Calling themselves the Spies for Peace, they supported people breaking into military bases and finding classified military information.
<gallery>
Civil disobedience ghandi.jpg|Mahatma Gandhi leading a group in an act of civil disobedience
Civil disobedience MLK.jpg|Martin Luther King Jr. used techniques of Civil Disobedience
</gallery>
 

====Living Demonstration====
An example of living demonstration is squatting. This is where a person occupies an empty property without the owners permission or knowledge. To demonstrators, this method is both practical and symbolic because it gives a place for homeless people to live and also raises awareness to the issue of homelessness. The issue of homelessness in London has been controversial and taken seriously for a very long time. The development of the squatters movement, in the 1960s, relied on press coverage to get its message across, as do many living demonstration movements<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>.
 

====Disruption====
Motivation for disruption often involves opposition to mainstream political processes and consumer culture. In the 1990s, disruption developed certain specific characteristics like opposition to the car and its destructive qualities, and a focus on civil freedom and democratic rights<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. During the 1990s English protesters took preventative measures such as camping on construction sites of new roads to stop them from being built. Dedicated protestors even began moving from one protest site/community to another, having no permanent home<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. The people participating in this movement learned a lot from the squatters movement about how to get the attention of the media and how to avoid arrest. They eventually produced their own websites and other press about how to avoid arrest in a protest situation.
 

====Underground Press====
[[File:Oz21large.jpg|300px|left|Issue 21 of Oz Magazine, and underground magazine in London in the 1960s]]
Underground Press in the UK began in October of 1966, when the first edition of the International Times was published. An article from the British Library writes, "The Underground Press didn't say what you thought, but it did somehow express what you felt" <ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. These publications aimed to express the growing counterculture of the 1960s in the UK where reporters wrote about changing attitudes of young people with a very "radical" voice. The underground press was given its name because it did not accept current, dominant cultural beliefs and when mainstream news carriers refused to sell the International Times, the writers and producers found young people to sell it to on the streets. Many of the underground papers were subject to police raids and were charged with obscenity and trying to corrupt public morals<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Even the layouts of the papers were hard to read and represented counterculture in a bold way.
 

====Do it Yourself====
"Do it Yourself" counterculture is all about stopping the consumption of the culture that was made for you and making your own culture. It is also a way to reject normal and accept ways of expressing oneself and developnew methods for self-expression <ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Fanzines, also known as "zines", became a popular form of expressing counterculture before websites became a medium of communication. The reason they became so popular is that they are not dependent on any kind of publisher, are not motivated by profit, and are not filtered through anything. They are not as regulated and monitored as many other similar digital mediums, making them attractive to people looking for a place to freely express themselves <ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Zines became so popular because they could be completely controlled by the person who created them. This helped to prevent misinterpretation, a problem that many countercultures have faces when dealing with mainstream media and press. Today, zines are not used much at all and the ones that are may never actually reach an audience.
 

==Examples of Counterculture in History==
The above methods of expressing countercultural points of view are mainly from the mid to late 20th century, but counterculture can be identified for far longer than this throughout history. Both the Enlightenment and Romanticism are not only intellectual movements, but are also great examples of counterculture in history before the 20th century. Of course these two movements are dramatically different than more modern countercultural movements in their methods used to portray an idea, but they are still important to the history of counterculture.
 
===The Enlightenment===
One of the most significant intellectual movements, and countercultural movements, of history is the Enlightenment. Enlightenment thinkers, mostly white males, institutionalized many intellectual values leaving lasting impacts even on todays society. As a counterculture, the Enlightenment formalized rationalism and made liberty a "social contract", as Ken Goffman and Dan Joy write in their book ''Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house'' <ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. Prior to the Enlightenment, European countries were ruled by only a few aristocrats who believed they had the power to do what they wanted with the world, which according to them was given to them by God. The Enlightenment challenged these ideas and within 100 years, leaders of the time were allowing others to discuss and spread whatever new ideas they wanted to<ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. By the end of the Enlightenment works and writings with controversial ideas were no longer being as heavily banned by governments and institutions in comparison to the time before the Enlightenment and at the beginning of the movement.
 
The Enlightenment brought many new philosophical viewpoints including those of René Descartes, who proposed that reason could help people to understand the physical world. This kind of idea was revolutionary for the time and completely unlike previous medieval ideas<ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. Another philosopher, John Locke, went directly against the absolute monarchies of the time and stated that a government based on consent and majority ruling was the best way to govern a civil society<ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. Arguably, the most important intellectual from the enlightenment was Francis Bacon, who is credited with the creation of the philosophy of modern science and technology. His ideas were completely opposite of medieval points of view, which stated that God, angels, and Satan are constantly interfering in the real world<ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. Also according to medieval ideas, there is no way to change the world to increase human happiness because it is not possible to change God's plan<ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. Bacon completely disagreed with this concept and argued that the way to true knowledge is to study the complexities of the natural world.
 
In general, the freethinking of the enlightenment makes it a counterculture to the long medieval ages that came before it. Enlightenment thinkers publicly emphasized their opposition to religious philosophies of the past through their writings and statements of their new ideas. Eventually, like most countercultures, the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers became accepted among the majority of society.
 

===Romanticism===
Shortly after the beginning of the French Revolution, the Romanticism movement among intellectuals from both Europe and America took off as a counterculture against the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment challenged medieval kings, the church, class structure, and many other aspects of the previous society while romantics were extremely opposed to modern rationalism, which was a main product of the enlightenment.
 
The Romantic Period was a time of serious changes, where violent revolutions were taking place in both Europe and America. Poets like William Blake and William Wordsworth felt that they were "chosen" to help people through this changing and confusing time<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>. At the beginning of the Romantic period, Romantic poets in general were supporters of the French Revolution but changed their minds as the Reign of Terror came into reality. Romantic poets emphasized the idea that the imagination could help people overcome their troubles and Percy Bysshe Shelley even declared that poets "are the unacknowledged legislators of the world"<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>. Contrary to the Enlightenment, Romantic work was deeply rooted in the individual rather than focused on society as a whole, and Romantics praised youth and innocence as being authoritative rather than those with age and experience. Romantics also believed that children held a special place in the world because of their innocent perspective<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>. In the writings of romantics they encouraged people to explore new places and made the world seem like it had unlimited opportunities for all.
 
Specific oppositions against the Enlightenment were shown through the introduction of the Gothic novel. One of the most famous Romantic novelists was Ann Radcliffe, who's work focused on struggling middle-class women who desired to see new places and inspiring landscapes<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>. Mary Shelley's famous work ''Frankenstein'' displays aspects of the Romantic movement, like the idea that scientific discoveries are driven by imagination, which is a direct contrast to that of the Enlightenment<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>.
 

===Indian Independence Movement===
Prior 1917, when Mahatma Gandhi's leadership of the Indian National Congress(INC) began, movements against the British empire by the Indian people were not consistent and did not have much of an effect on the situation in the country. The Indian Independence movement took place from 1917 to 1947 with the INC at the head of the nonviolent protests<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. Through Gandhi's leadership the INC went through many necessary changes, including alterations of their tactics for protest. Gandhi brought together both urban forces and the rural masses that were against the British occupation to challenge their colonial occupation. The INC adopted tactics of civil disobedience, nonviolent direct action, and noncooperation<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>.
 
In 1919 the British Imperial government introduced a policy of dyarchy, which was the beginnings of local self-government. This policy gave administrative control to locally elected Indian officials<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. Dyarchy also established an Imperial legislative government but with much less power than the local governments. In 1937 this policy was abolished, but India did not gain independence and remained under British control<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>.
[[File:CA Salt March Gandhi.jpg|300px|frameless|right|Gandhi during the salt march]]
 
Gandhi reasoned with the INC that acts of civil disobedience would only be effective if they were carried out by large numbers of people, so the INC spread to have branches of the congress in each district of British India<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. Civil disobedience was extremely popular with the Indian people and movements like the resistance campaign in 1917 and the anti-Rowlatt Bill satyagraha in 1919 were very successful<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. The anti-Rowlatt Bill or the Rowlatt Act was passed by the Imperial Legislative Council which extended the measures of preventative indefinite definition, incarceration without trial and judicial review. The first mass national nonviolent movement was called the Noncooperation movement and took place from 1920-1922. The NCM was a series of local protests and as a result the 1920s was focused on forming relationships between urban nationalists in India and the smaller rural communities<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. These newly formed connections improved rural participation in mass protest and civil disobedience in the 1930s. The most amazing movement made by the INC was the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) from 1930-1934. This movement began with the salt March, which was a 240 mile walk where Gandhi was arrested for public display of salt making<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. Salt making was illegal in India because special taxes were imposed on imported salt by the British East India Company in oder to allow them to keep control over the salt trade. This tax was publicly hated by the Indian public and as an act of Civil Disobedience people made their own salt or bought salt illegally. Gandhi's arrest launched massive acts of Civil Disobedience and within the first year of the CDM over 60,000 people had been arrested<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>.
 
By 1934 the CDM ended due to an increase in repression by the Government of India. The use of nonviolence during the CDM brought many local successes and showed the immense power of the opposition but noncooperation tactics did not directly pressure the British to leave India. Acts of Civil Disobedience led by Gandhi and the INC, left the INC in a good position to negotiate with the British empire<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>.
 
The Indian Independence movement is a counterculture because the Indian people of the movement were trying to overcome their oppression form the rule of the British Imperial government. They believed that they deserved independence and freedom which was the opposite view of their oppressors.
 

==1960s counterculture==
The rest of the background for this project will be focused on the complex counterculture of the 1960s. Many different countercultural movements emerged in the 1960s, and are very much related to each other, but they all fall under different categories of counterculture. Some were more political, while others are purely cultural, and some were a mix of both political and cultural motivations. Distinguishing between these differences is extremely important so I have separated the movements into 3 categories: mainly political, mainly cultural, and a combination of both political and cultural.
 
===Political Counterculture===
For this project the definition of political counterculture that I will be using is a counterculture where people aim to go against a government institution, as well as the actions of that institution, with the hope of improving society.
====Antiwar Movement====
As the Vietnam war progressed, opposition to the war of the general public in America grew substantially. Both mass demonstrations organized by national groups and more local protests were important to the movements efforts<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>. Groups like the American Friends Service Committee, the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy, and the Women Strike for Peace were some of the main political groups involved in the movement<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>. Many protestors believed that the Vietnam War took too many resources from other more important foreign interests and relations and used methods like peaceful protest to try to get the government to negotiate a settlement with Vietnam instead of continuing the war<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>. The antiwar movement was made up of many different political groups. Radicals of this movement often used civil disobedience to protest many government actions of the U.S. and believed that electoral politics were unproductive. Pacifists that were part of this movement questioned the U.S. Cold War Policy. A small part of the antiwar movement was made up of Leftists. Leftists favored peaceful demonstrations to express their demands of the immediate removal of the U.S. from Vietnam<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>. There was a lot of distrust among these three groups, complicating the antiwar movement<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>.
 
The antiwar movement started as a series of "teach-ins" on college campuses and the University of Michigan attracted a lot of attention when three thousand people attended a series of lectures on the Vietnam War in 1965<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>. Antiwar movements on college campuses began to become intertwined with civil rights issues and other social issues of the times. The movement in 1965 only represented a small part of the American populations beliefs but it attracted a lot of attention due to the media coverage of mass demonstrations<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>. Activists of this movement were often of the middle class and very well educated and the crowds of the mass demonstrations were made up of many college students.The military draft also contributed to the antiwar movement and many people resisted the draft both legally and illegally<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>.
[[File:Womens-march-against-vietnam-war-P.jpg|300px|frameless|left|Photo from the Women's march against the Vietnam War]]
 
The antiwar movement gained a negative image among moderate people of the country due to the Government's attacks on the movement. The presence of hippie countercultural clothing and styles among many people of the movement also made many moderates more than hesitant to join the movement<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>. Government and administrative officials also accused the antiwar movement as being controlled by communists, also hindering its popularity<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>.
 
The expansion of the war into Cambodia in 1970 caused the movement to explode with protests in reaction to the controversial decision<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>. Protests on college campuses became dangerous and 5 people were even killed on the Kent State University campus after National Guardsman fired into the crowd<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>. Polls at the time showed that most Americans actually supported the decision to move into Cambodia, but the increase in protest created a predicament for the government<ref name="antiwar">Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716</ref>. Protests continued until the official conclusion of the war and eventually the public accepted the purpose of the movement even though in rejected the people that participated in the movement.
 

==="Cultural" Counterculture===
Countercultures do not have to necessarily be politically based, some are just purely rejection of the mainstream culture currently in place, like the hippie movement of the 1960s.
====Hippie Movement====
The "hippie movement" was very popular among young people, especially young Americans under the age of 30 during the 1960s. There was an "atmosphere of the brotherhood of man, idealism, relaxed sexual mores, and a disinclination to support the war in Vietnam" <ref name="summeroflove">Sandford, C. (2017). The summer of love. The Hedgehog Review, 19(1), 9+. Retrieved from http://libraries.state.ma.us/login?gwurl=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=mlin_c_worpoly&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA485936907&asid=fbaf27afb18e267e66bdbf598c3c039a</ref>. Hippie counterculture is often linked to the anti Vietnam war movement of the same time period but it is important to note that they are also very separate. The hippie movement was much more cultural than the antiwar movement, which was mainly political. It is also important to note that the hippie counterculture did not involve all young men and women, there were millions of young people in America who were focused on other aspects of the 1960s like the growing space program and the cost of gasoline<ref name="summeroflove">Sandford, C. (2017). The summer of love. The Hedgehog Review, 19(1), 9+. Retrieved from http://libraries.state.ma.us/login?gwurl=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=mlin_c_worpoly&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA485936907&asid=fbaf27afb18e267e66bdbf598c3c039a</ref>.
[[File:Woodstock poster.jpg|100px|frameless|right|Poster from the popular hippie music festival Woodstock in 1969]]
 
Hippies were known for promoting the use of recreational drugs, like marijuana and LSD specifically. Even hippies that didn't use marijuana promoted its uses and benefits to other people <ref name="miller">Miller, T. S. (2012). The hippies and American values. Univ. of Tennessee Press.</ref>. Hippies did have distinctions between good and bad drugs as well, they believed psychedelic drugs were good while drugs that made a person "dumb" were bad. The vast majority of hippies pushed for legalization of marijuana, because they believed that everyone should have access to substances that will expand the mind. To hippies "dope" was a form of mental pleasure, and similarly sex was a form of physical pleasure. Their attitudes on sex helped to revolutionize the views on sex of the entire Untied States<ref name="miller">Miller, T. S. (2012). The hippies and American values. Univ. of Tennessee Press.</ref>. Rock n' Roll was also an extremely important part to the hippie movement. For hippies, rock wasn't just music it was a way of life and the underground press during the 60s had a substantial focus on rock<ref name="miller">Miller, T. S. (2012). The hippies and American values. Univ. of Tennessee Press.</ref>.
[[File:FlowerInGun.jpg|250px|frameless|left|Famous image of a man putting flowers in the gun of a National Guardsman]]
 
From a British person's perspective, the hippie movement in the UK was much less intense than it was in the U.S., according to Christopher Sanford. He wrote,"what this mainly seems to have meant was some very silly shirts, marginally better food (thanks to new European trade laws), and a slight increase in the use and availability of soft drugs"<ref name="summeroflove">Sandford, C. (2017). The summer of love. The Hedgehog Review, 19(1), 9+. Retrieved from http://libraries.state.ma.us/login?gwurl=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=mlin_c_worpoly&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA485936907&asid=fbaf27afb18e267e66bdbf598c3c039a</ref>. He also says that for most young people not much really changed and people continued playing cricket, knitting, and worrying about their exams and the "sex, drugs, and rock n' roll" aspects of the 60s did not take over their lives<ref name="summeroflove">Sandford, C. (2017). The summer of love. The Hedgehog Review, 19(1), 9+. Retrieved from http://libraries.state.ma.us/login?gwurl=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=mlin_c_worpoly&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA485936907&asid=fbaf27afb18e267e66bdbf598c3c039a</ref>.
 

===A Mix of Both===
Some countercultures, like the Civil Rights Movement and the Gay Liberation Front, attempted to oppose government directly to create change but also have cultural aspects to them as well.
====Civil Rights Movement in the United States====
The Civil Rights Movement began in the 1950s and continued into the 1960s where it gained immense momentum and caused much needed changes in racial laws. Black Americans in the 60s were protesting to get the rights they deserved and obtain acceptance as part of mainstream America<ref name="morris">Morris, A. D. (1986). The origins of the civil rights movement. Simon and Schuster.</ref>.
 
An important beginning to the Civil Rights Movement was the Jim Crow laws and system, which made Blacks and Whites completely separated from each other. On a "Jim Crow bus" there was a Black and a White section and it was one of the few places where Blacks and Whites were separated but still in full view of each other<ref name="morris"f>Morris, A. D. (1986). The origins of the civil rights movement. Simon and Schuster.</ref>. The Black community of Baton Rouge began a bus boycott in 1953 and for ten days there was not a single Black passenger on any of the buses in Baton Rouge<ref name="morris">Morris, A. D. (1986). The origins of the civil rights movement. Simon and Schuster.</ref>. In the mid 1950s there were many local movement centers in places like Baton Rouge, Montgomery, and Birmingham which created a diverse confrontations and protests in the South.
[[File:Busboycott.gif|200px|frameless|left|Photo from a protest against bus segregation]]
 
Reverand Martin Luther King became a leader in the Civil Rights Movement and helped to form the Southern Christian Leadership Conference(SCLC)<ref name="morris">Morris, A. D. (1986). The origins of the civil rights movement. Simon and Schuster.</ref>. King had the ability to call people together according to Ella Baker, the SCLC's first Associate Director<ref name="morris">Morris, A. D. (1986). The origins of the civil rights movement. Simon and Schuster.</ref>. He was also regarded as the main symbol of the struggle of Blacks at the time trying to overcome oppression. King adopted strategies of Civil Disobedience which greatly contributed to the success of the movement.
 
One of the most famous of King's writings is his ''Letter from a Birmingham Jail'' which he wrote on April 16th, 1963 after being arrested on April, 12th. This letter aims to defend the strategies of using nonviolence in the fight against racism and segregation. He wrote this letter as a response to a statement published by eight white clergymen that attacked King's methods.
 
[[File:O-MARCH-ON-WASHINGTON-1963-facebook.jpg|150px|frameless|right|Photo from the March on Washington in 1963]]
In the letter King writes,"In any nonviolent campaign there are four basic steps: collection of the facts to determine whether injustices exist; negotiation; self purification; and direct action" <ref name="letter">King, M. M., Jr. (n.d.). "Letter From a Birmingham Jail". Retrieved June 14, 2017, from https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html</ref>. He says that "we", referring to the black community involved in the Movement, have done all of the steps in Birmingham and claims that it is probably the most segregated of all of the cities in America<ref name="letter">King, M. M., Jr. (n.d.). "Letter From a Birmingham Jail". Retrieved June 14, 2017, from https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html</ref>. He addresses the clergymens questions about using negotiation over direct action and says that direct action is used to create a crisis situation in a community so that negotiation becomes necessary<ref name="letter">King, M. M., Jr. (n.d.). "Letter From a Birmingham Jail". Retrieved June 14, 2017, from https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html</ref>. This is very similar to techniques used by Gandhi during the Indian independence movement, where the INC used direct action and civil disobedience and was later able to come to a point of negotiation. King argues that they are trying to do something very similar to this idea. He also addresses claims from the clergymen that the actions of the Movement have been "untimely" in Birmingham<ref name="letter">King, M. M., Jr. (n.d.). "Letter From a Birmingham Jail". Retrieved June 14, 2017, from https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html</ref>. King writes that he has never participated in a direct action campaign with good timing and waiting for justice is just the same as denying justice<ref name="letter">King, M. M., Jr. (n.d.). "Letter From a Birmingham Jail". Retrieved June 14, 2017, from https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html</ref>. He also writes about the difference between just and unjust laws saying that laws can be just but are applied unjustly. He also says that a person can break an unjust law if they do it openly and are willing to accept the punishments of their actions<ref name="letter">King, M. M., Jr. (n.d.). "Letter From a Birmingham Jail". Retrieved June 14, 2017, from https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html</ref>. He also writes in the letter that,"Oppressed people cannot remain oppressed forever. The yearning for freedom eventually manifests itself, and that is what has happened to the American Negro"<ref name="letter">King, M. M., Jr. (n.d.). "Letter From a Birmingham Jail". Retrieved June 14, 2017, from https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html</ref>. The writing in this letter was a powerful force for the Civil Rights Movement and clearly reflects the goals and aims of the Movement as a whole. Directly opposing the accepted culture of segregation and discrimination of the time, makes this a very political counterculture. However the Civil Rights Movement also had many cultural aspects to it as well.
 
An important cultural aspect to the Civil Rights Movement was the songs and music of the Movement. African Americans have used song as a way to protest and resist oppression since the time of slavery. Activists during the Civil Rights Movement searched for effective ways of communication consistent with their ideals, and turned to song as a result<ref name="songs">Sanger, K. L. (1995). When the Spirit Says Sing!: The Role of Freedom Songs in the Civil Rights Movement. Routledge.</ref>. One activist recalled the movement by saying "the movement without songs would have been like birds without wings"<ref name="songs">Sanger, K. L. (1995). When the Spirit Says Sing!: The Role of Freedom Songs in the Civil Rights Movement. Routledge.</ref>. The freedom songs of the Movement produced strong feelings of power among the activists of the movement.
 

====Gay Liberation Front====
One very important movement that began in the 1960s was the Gay Liberation movement. This movement was led by young people who worked with organizations like the Mattachine Society, the Society for Individual Rights, and the Council on Religion and the Homosexual<ref name="hall">Hall, S. (2008). Protest Movements in the 1970s: The Long 1960s. Journal of Contemporary History, 43(4), 655-672. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/40543228</ref>. Activists of this time period were working to abolish the idea that homosexuality was a sickness, which was a normal and accepted idea of the time<ref name="hall">Hall, S. (2008). Protest Movements in the 1970s: The Long 1960s. Journal of Contemporary History, 43(4), 655-672. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/40543228</ref>. These groups were aiming to help gay men and women of the time by providing social services, fighting discrimination, and developing a new, positive gay culture in American cities. This was a completely revolutionary idea for the time, and the 1960s made many advances that helped the movement grow in the future. After a riot in a bar in Greenwich Village in New York City in 1969, known as the Stonewall riot, The Gay Liberation Front was formed and in only 4 years there was over 800 gay organizations in the U.S.<ref name="hall">Hall, S. (2008). Protest Movements in the 1970s: The Long 1960s. Journal of Contemporary History, 43(4), 655-672. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/40543228</ref>. The political activism of the time was marked by this expanse in support for the gay liberation movement.
 
[[File:Gay-Liberation-Front-1969.jpg|250px|frameless|left]]
The Gay Liberation movement continued into the 1970s and in 1971 the Gay Liberation Front published their manifesto in London. The purpose of this manifesto was to explain to the general population that homosexuals were oppressed and what the aims of their movement were. The introduction of the manifesto says, "Homosexuals, who have been oppressed by physical violence and by ideological and psychological attacks at every level of social interaction, are at last becoming angry" <ref name="Gay Liberation">Gay Liberation Front: Manifesto. (n.d.). Retrieved June 12, 2017, from http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/pwh/glf-london.asp</ref>. Homosexual people of the 1960s and 1970s felt that they needed to fight against their oppression and claim their rights as other groups had in the past. The document also explains the many ways that gay people are oppressed like through school, the media, the law, and even physical violence among many other things <ref name="Gay Liberation">Gay Liberation Front: Manifesto. (n.d.). Retrieved June 12, 2017, from http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/pwh/glf-london.asp</ref>. The manifesto explains why they are oppressed, stating "There are only these two stereotyped roles into which everyone is supposed to fit, and most people-including gay people too-are apt to be alarmed when they hear these stereotypes or gender roles attacked" <ref name="Gay Liberation">Gay Liberation Front: Manifesto. (n.d.). Retrieved June 12, 2017, from http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/pwh/glf-london.asp</ref>. According to the manifesto gay people were oppressed in the 1960s because they did not fit into gender roles of the family dynamic. The rest of the manifesto focuses on what the movement will do to change their situation and the new life that gay people will have once discrimination against them no longer has a place in society.
 
This countercultural movement is both a political and cultural one. The Gay Liberation Front sought to make homosexuals accepted in general society but also to give them the same rights as straight people through the establishment of laws of equality.
 

=Section 2: Deliverable=
==Today's Countercultural Movements==
 
===EDM culture===
After doing a lot of research about the hippie movement of the 1960s, I have seen a lot of parallels to a group of todays youth, Electronic Dance Music Festival attendees. Electronic Dance Music, or EDM, is an increasingly popular style of music in today's culture. This newer type of music is often frowned upon by older people for its loud noise and disruptive nature as well as the drug culture that comes along with it. Like rock music in the 60s, EDM of today is exploding among todays youth. Many people are attributing this to the desire of millennials to break away from the generation of their parents<ref name="subculture">Huq, R. (2007). Beyond subculture: Pop, youth and identity in a postcolonial world. Routledge.</ref>. In my opinion, the listeners of EDM are much less intense than hippies of the 60s but the general idea of going against what is accepted and mainstream is somewhat similar. The demographics of these two groups are similar as well, both groups mainly consist of college students that are fairly well educated.
 
With EDM music comes music festivals, like the very popular festivals Ultra, Electric Daisy Carnival, and Coachella. Like Woodstock, people camp out in large fields for these festivals to listen to new music and experiment with drugs. As you can see from the two pictures below Woodstock and Coachella are very similar on a visual level. At first when I found these two photos I assumed their similarities were just a coincidence, but after looking at so many photos from the two festivals, the visual similarities are irrefutable. Again I am definitely not saying that Woodstock and today's music festivals are the same at all but I am saying that today's festival culture is a counterculture because it is going against the cultural norm.
<gallery>
Woodstock girl.jpg|Young woman at Woodstock in 1969
Coachella girl.jpg|Young woman at the music festival Coachella in 2016
</gallery>
 
With the increase in popularity of EDM music and festivals, has come an increase in use of recreational drugs. Established culture frowns upon the use of illegal drugs like cocaine and MDMA (known as ecstasy or molly) but these drugs are very popular among festival goers in today's world. Marijuana and alcohol are also often used by attendees of EDM festivals.
 
Some people refer to today's EDM culture as a "revival of the hippie movement" but I would not go as far as saying this. The hippie movement is known for making new "weird" music, in the form of rock, and experimenting with psychedelic drugs<ref name="miller">Miller, T. S. (2012). The hippies and American values. Univ. of Tennessee Press.</ref>. Today, the new, weird music is EDM and the drugs are MDMA and cocaine. On a surface level these two movements look pretty similar, but if you think about the motivations behind the hippie movement, EDM festival culture can't compare. Hippies promoted peace and used drugs to expand their minds and consciousness, not drugs like cocaine that will make people "dumb"<ref name="miller">Miller, T. S. (2012). The hippies and American values. Univ. of Tennessee Press.</ref> while the youth of today are careless with their drug use at music festivals causing illnesses and deaths to result. At one EDM festival in New York, 22 people became ill and 2 of them unfortunately died, and after investigations it was found that 95% of them were under the influence of drugs or alcohol<ref>Illnesses and Deaths Among Persons Attending an Electronic Dance-Music Festival — New York City, 2013. (2014, December 19). Retrieved June 15, 2017, from https://www.cdc.gov/MMWr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6350a3.htm</ref>. This careless use of drugs is only one example of how today's EDM culture is certainly not a revival of the hippie movement.
 
Despite these differences, the EDM culture is a countercultural movement because at its beginnings there was nothing like it in the mainstream culture and wasn't accepted by many. Though today it is certainly on its way to becoming mainstream, and may already be considered mainstream by some people.
 

===Neo-Luddism===
Another interesting counterculture of today is Neo-Luddism. Someone who is a Neo-Luddite rejects the use of modern technology and "resists its dominance over our daily lives"<ref name="luddites">Jones, S. E. (2013). Against technology: From the Luddites to neo-Luddism. Routledge.</ref>. Today technology is ubiquitous, so I have trouble understanding the ability of Neo-Luddites to live in a normal society. The movement of neo-luddism does not have a clear leader and is made up of non-affiliated or loosely affiliated groups calling for the ending of the development of new technologies<ref name="luddites">Jones, S. E. (2013). Against technology: From the Luddites to neo-Luddism. Routledge.</ref>. Some groups like the Amish or Mennonites are considered Neo-Luddites but some writers, environmentalists, and families may not be affiliated with any group but still fall under the category of Neo-Luddism. There may be no clear leader of the movement but I have come across in my research a woman named Chellis Glenndinning, who wrote ''Notes toward a Neo-Luddite Manifesto'' in 1990.
 
Glenndinning begins the manifesto by writing about Luddites of the 19th century and their opposition to the growing emphasis on progress. 19th century Luddites supported "an older, more decentralized one espousing the interconnect- edness of work, community, and family through cra guilds, village networks, and townships" <ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>. She explains the Neo-Luddites feel "barraged by technology" and cites examples of what people all over the world are doing to protest technology, like smashing televisions and computers<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>. Later in the document she outlines the principles of Neo-Luddism and the first principle is that the movement is not anti-technology, they only oppose technologies that are destructive to human lives. The second principle is that they believe all technologies are political, too controlled by corporations, and are strictly for their benefit<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>.
 
Another interesting part of the document is the "Program for the Future" section, which calls for the "dismantling" of destructive technologies in order to prevent destruction of life<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>. Glenndinning calls for the dismantling of nuclear, chemical, genetic engineering, and electromagnetic technologies as well as a few other types of technologies. She wrote that television much be dismantled because it is a "centralized mind-controlling force" and is destructive to the environment<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>. While they wish for these technologies to be destroyed they support the creation of technologies that are for the benefit of life on Earth, while combining politics, morality, ecology, and "technics"<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>.
 
Neo-Luddism is so opposite of today's mainstream views on technology that it cannot possibly be ignored when talking about modern counterculture. It is not as big or as organized as other modern countercultural movements of today but I believe it is still important to be talked about. People today may be a little bit scared by the rapid advancement of technology, but most don't condemn useful technologies that have the ability to cure sick people or ones that allow humans to communicate with people on the other side of the world in only a few seconds. Neo-Luddites today are also worried about hackers sabotaging the world's networks and the possibility of cyber warfare<ref name="luddites">Jones, S. E. (2013). Against technology: From the Luddites to neo-Luddism. Routledge.</ref>. This worry is at the back of many people's minds that are not Neo-Luddites, but the difference between these people and Neo-Luddites is that they take this worry to an extreme and call for the dismantling of many technologies that are vital to the health and safety of the human race.
 

=Conclusion=
 
Through this project I have attempted to give a definition to the concept of counterculture and identify many examples of countercultural movements throughout history. I have also identified two countercultural movements of today, EDM culture and Neo-Luddism. I originally thought that today's EDM culture and the hippie movement of the 1960s were very similar to each other, but after completing my research I realize these similarities are only on a surface level and the motivations behind the two movements are dramatically different. While I didn't find any direct parallels between Neo-Luddism and anything that I researched for background information I felt that it was important to include this movement as a counterculture of today because of its severe contrast with today's widely accepted views on technology.
 
After completing this project I have learned that counterculture is a much more complex topic than I originally thought and I hope that this is clear to the readers of the project. Also, I am very aware that there are a large number of countercultures and subcultures of today that I did not write about. In the future more in-depth research could be completed about the countercultures that I have already mentioned and other ones not identified in this project.
 

=References=
# Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html
# Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics
# Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.
# Hall, S. (2008). Protest Movements in the 1970s: The Long 1960s. Journal of Contemporary History, 43(4), 655-672. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/40543228
# Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.
# Gay Liberation Front: Manifesto. (n.d.). Retrieved June 12, 2017, from http://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/pwh/glf-london.asp
# Hall, M. (2004). The Vietnam Era Antiwar Movement. OAH Magazine of History, 18(5), 13-17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/25163716
# Sandford, C. (2017). The summer of love. The Hedgehog Review, 19(1), 9+. Retrieved from http://libraries.state.ma.us/login?gwurl=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=mlin_c_worpoly&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA485936907&asid=fbaf27afb18e267e66bdbf598c3c039a
# Morris, A. D. (1986). The origins of the civil rights movement. Simon and Schuster.
# King, M. M., Jr. (n.d.). "Letter From a Birmingham Jail". Retrieved June 14, 2017, from https://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham.html
# Miller, T. S. (2012). The hippies and American values. Univ. of Tennessee Press.
# Huq, R. (2007). Beyond subculture: Pop, youth and identity in a postcolonial world. Routledge.
# Illnesses and Deaths Among Persons Attending an Electronic Dance-Music Festival — New York City, 2013. (2014, December 19). Retrieved June 15, 2017, from https://www.cdc.gov/MMWr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6350a3.htm</ref>
# Jones, S. E. (2013). Against technology: From the Luddites to neo-Luddism. Routledge.
# Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.
# Sanger, K. L. (1995). When the Spirit Says Sing!: The Role of Freedom Songs in the Civil Rights Movement. Routledge.
 
[[Category:History Projects]]
[[Category:2017]]