Counterculture Through The Ages - Revision history

Ekmceachern at 21:16, 21 June 2017

2017-06-21T21:16:27Z

Ekmceachern at 21:04, 21 June 2017

2017-06-21T21:04:11Z

Ekmceachern: /* 1960s counterculture */

2017-06-21T20:45:03Z

‎1960s counterculture

Show changes

Ekmceachern: /* Examples of Counterculture in History */

2017-06-21T20:36:30Z

‎Examples of Counterculture in History

Ekmceachern at 20:28, 21 June 2017

2017-06-21T20:28:43Z

Ekmceachern at 20:23, 21 June 2017

2017-06-21T20:23:36Z

Ekmceachern at 20:21, 21 June 2017

2017-06-21T20:21:43Z

Ekmceachern at 20:21, 21 June 2017

2017-06-21T20:21:06Z

Ekmceachern at 20:20, 21 June 2017

2017-06-21T20:20:18Z

Ekmceachern at 20:18, 21 June 2017

2017-06-21T20:18:25Z

@@ Line 27: / Line 27: @@
 As a forewarning I would like to address that counterculture is an extremely complex subject and through this project I will only be able to just touch upon the surface of history's rich and plentiful countercultural movements. The definition I have given below cannot possibly cover all countercultures in history but it will cover the ones that I talk about throughout the rest of the project.
 <br><br>
-A counterculture "rejects or challenges mainstream culture or particular elements of it" <ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Most modern countercultural actions aim to show opposition, disagreement, or rebellion towards the current culture in place. Counterculture is often displayed through protesting against a particular issue, rebelling against an established way of doing things, trying to overcome oppression, and even creating a new culture when the one in place becomes unsatisfying<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Methods used to express countercultural points of view are meant to promote action and provoke changes among people. Often the unacceptability of counterculture is eventually taken as a normality by the general population and considered mainstream culture. This also makes it very difficult to identify a counterculture until a few years after it has originated. It is also important to note that there are different kinds of counterculture, and this project will focus mainly on cultural and political counterculture. In the sections below I have included a few of the modern methods people use to express their countercultural point of view.
+A counterculture "rejects or challenges mainstream culture or particular elements of it" <ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Most modern countercultural actions aim to show opposition, disagreement, or rebellion towards the current culture in place. Counterculture is often displayed through protesting against a particular issue, rebelling against an established way of doing things, trying to overcome oppression, and even creating a new culture when the one in place becomes unsatisfying<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Methods used to express countercultural points of view are meant to promote action and provoke changes among people. Sometimes the unacceptability of counterculture is eventually taken as a normality by the general population and considered mainstream culture. An example of this is the Civil Rights Movement, because laws were created to give people of any race the same rights as Whites, as a direct result of the Movement.The Gay Liberation Movement had a similar effect on society, and as the Movement gained momentum people began accepting Gay people as normal people into society. However, it is true in both of these examples that counterculture is not accepted by everyone and some people today still look down upon groups like gay and Black people. So it is fair to say that all countercultures have the possibility to be accepted into mainstream society, but it will not happen to all countercultures. This also makes it very difficult to identify a counterculture until a few years after it has originated. It is also important to note that there are different kinds of counterculture, and this project will focus mainly on cultural and political counterculture. In the sections below I have included a few of the modern methods people use to express their countercultural point of view.
 <br><br>
 ===Methods===

@@ Line 154: / Line 154: @@
 =Section 2: Deliverable=
 ==Today's Countercultural Movements==
-<br><br>
+<br>
 ===EDM culture===
-After doing a lot of research about the hippie movement of the 1960s, I have seen a lot of parallels to a group of todays youth, Electronic Dance Music Festival attendees. Electronic Dance Music, or EDM, is an increasingly popular style of music in today's culture. This newer type of music is often frowned upon by older people for its loud noise and disruptive nature as well as the drug culture that comes along with it. Like rock music in the 60s, EDM of today is exploding among todays youth. Many people are attributing this to the desire of millennials to break away from the generation of their parents<ref name="subculture">Huq, R. (2007). Beyond subculture: Pop, youth and identity in a postcolonial world. Routledge.</ref>. In my opinion, the listeners of EDM are much less intense than hippies of the 60s but the general idea of going against what is accepted and mainstream is somewhat similar. The demographics of these two groups are similar as well, both groups mainly consist of college students that are fairly well educated.
+After doing research about the hippie movement of the 1960s, I have seen parallels to a group of today's youth, Electronic Dance Music Festival attendees. Electronic Dance Music, or EDM, is an increasingly popular style of music in today's culture. This newer type of music is often frowned upon by older people for its loud noise and disruptive nature as well as the drug culture that comes along with it. Like rock music in the 60s, EDM is exploding among today's youth. Many people are attributing this to the desire of millennials to break away from the generation of their parents<ref name="subculture">Huq, R. (2007). Beyond subculture: Pop, youth and identity in a postcolonial world. Routledge.</ref>. In my opinion, the listeners of EDM have less of a meaning to their movement than hippies of the 60s did but the general idea of going against what is accepted and mainstream is somewhat similar. The demographics of these two groups are similar as well, both groups mainly consist of college students that are fairly well educated.
 <br><br>
-With EDM music comes music festivals, like the very popular festivals Ultra, Electric Daisy Carnival, and Coachella. Like Woodstock, people camp out in large fields for these festivals to listen to new music and experiment with drugs. As you can see from the two pictures below Woodstock and Coachella are very similar on a visual level. At first when I found these two photos I assumed their similarities were just a coincidence, but after looking at so many photos from the two festivals, the visual similarities are irrefutable. Again I am definitely not saying that Woodstock and today's music festivals are the same at all but I am saying that today's festival culture is a counterculture because it is going against the cultural norm.
+With EDM music comes music festivals, like the very popular festivals Ultra, Electric Daisy Carnival, and Coachella. Like Woodstock, people camp out in large fields for these festivals to listen to new music and experiment with drugs. As you can see from the two pictures below Woodstock and Coachella are very similar on a visual level. At first when I found these two photos I assumed their similarities were just a coincidence, but after looking at so many photos from the two festivals, the visual similarities are irrefutable. It is very possible that the photos from today's EDM festivals were posed to look the same as those from Woodstock, but it could also just be a coincidence.  Again I am definitely not saying that Woodstock and today's music festivals are the same at all but I am saying that today's festival culture is a counterculture because it is going against the cultural norm.
 <gallery>
 Woodstock girl.jpg|Young woman at Woodstock in 1969
@@ Line 174: / Line 174: @@
 Another interesting counterculture of today is Neo-Luddism. Someone who is a Neo-Luddite rejects the use of modern technology and "resists its dominance over our daily lives"<ref name="luddites">Jones, S. E. (2013). Against technology: From the Luddites to neo-Luddism. Routledge.</ref>. Today technology is ubiquitous, so I have trouble understanding the ability of Neo-Luddites to live in a normal society. The movement of neo-luddism does not have a clear leader and is made up of non-affiliated or loosely affiliated groups calling for the ending of the development of new technologies<ref name="luddites">Jones, S. E. (2013). Against technology: From the Luddites to neo-Luddism. Routledge.</ref>. Some groups like the Amish or Mennonites are considered Neo-Luddites but some writers, environmentalists, and families may not be affiliated with any group but still fall under the category of Neo-Luddism. There may be no clear leader of the movement but I have come across in my research a woman named Chellis Glenndinning, who wrote ''Notes toward a Neo-Luddite Manifesto'' in 1990.
 <br><br>
-Glenndinning begins the manifesto by writing about Luddites of the 19th century and their opposition to the growing emphasis on progress. 19th century Luddites supported "an older, more decentralized one espousing the interconnect- edness of work, community, and family through cra  guilds, village networks, and townships" <ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>. She explains the Neo-Luddites feel "barraged by technology" and cites examples of what people all over the world are doing to protest technology, like smashing televisions and computers<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>. Later in the document she outlines the principles of Neo-Luddism and the first principle is that the movement is not anti-technology, they only oppose technologies that are destructive to human lives. The second principle is that they believe all technologies are political, too controlled by corporations, and are strictly for their benefit<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>.
+Glenndinning begins the manifesto by writing about Luddites of the 19th century and their opposition to the growing emphasis on progress. 19th century Luddites supported "an older, more decentralized one espousing the interconnect- edness of work, community, and family through craft guilds, village networks, and townships" <ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>. She explains the Neo-Luddites feel "barraged by technology" and cites examples of what people all over the world are doing to protest technology, like smashing televisions and computers<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>. Later in the document she outlines the principles of Neo-Luddism and the first principle is that the movement is not anti-technology, they only oppose technologies that are destructive to human lives. The second principle is that they believe all technologies are political, too controlled by corporations, and are strictly for their benefit<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>.
 <br><br>
-Another interesting part of the document is the "Program for the Future" section, which calls for the "dismantling" of destructive technologies in order to prevent destruction of life<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>. Glenndinning calls for the dismantling of nuclear, chemical, genetic engineering, and electromagnetic technologies as well as a few other types of technologies. She wrote that television much be dismantled because it is a "centralized mind-controlling force" and is destructive to the environment<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>. While they wish for these technologies to be destroyed they support the creation of technologies that are for the benefit of life on Earth, while combining politics, morality, ecology, and "technics"<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>.
+Another interesting part of the document is the "Program for the Future" section, which calls for the "dismantling" of destructive technologies in order to prevent destruction of life<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>. Glenndinning calls for the dismantling of nuclear, chemical, genetic engineering, and electromagnetic technologies as well as a few other types of technologies. She wrote that television must be dismantled because it is a "centralized mind-controlling force" and is destructive to the environment<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>. While Neo-Luddites wish for these technologies to be destroyed they support the creation of technologies that are for the benefit of life on Earth, while combining politics, morality, ecology, and "technics"<ref name="manifesto">Glendinning, C. (1990). Notes toward a neo-Luddite manifesto. Utne Reader, 38(1), 50-3.</ref>.
 <br><br>
-Neo-Luddism is so opposite of today's mainstream views on technology that it cannot possibly be ignored when talking about modern counterculture. It is not as big or as organized as other modern countercultural movements of today but I believe it is still important to be talked about. People today may be a little bit scared by the rapid advancement of technology, but most don't condemn useful technologies that have the ability to cure sick people or ones that allow humans to communicate with people on the other side of the world in only a few seconds. Neo-Luddites today are also worried about hackers sabotaging the world's networks and the possibility of cyber warfare<ref name="luddites">Jones, S. E. (2013). Against technology: From the Luddites to neo-Luddism. Routledge.</ref>. This worry is at the back of many people's minds that are not Neo-Luddites, but the difference between these people and Neo-Luddites is that they take this worry to an extreme and call for the dismantling of many technologies that are vital to the health and safety of the human race.
+Neo-Luddism is so opposite of today's mainstream views on technology that it cannot possibly be ignored when talking about modern counterculture. It is not as big or as organized as other modern countercultural movements of today but I believe it is still important to be talked about. People today may be a little bit scared by the rapid advancement of technology, but most don't condemn useful technologies that have the ability to cure sick people or ones that allow humans to communicate with people on the other side of the world in only a few seconds. Neo-Luddites today are also worried about hackers sabotaging the world's networks and the possibility of cyber warfare.<ref name="luddites">Jones, S. E. (2013). Against technology: From the Luddites to neo-Luddism. Routledge.</ref> This worry is at the back of many people's minds that are not Neo-Luddites, but the difference between these people and Neo-Luddites is that they take this worry to an extreme and call for the dismantling of many technologies that are vital to the health and safety of the human race.
 <br><br>

@@ Line 66: / Line 66: @@
 ==Examples of Counterculture in History==
-The above methods of expressing countercultural points of view are mainly from the mid to late 20th century, but counterculture can be identified for far longer than this throughout history. Both the Enlightenment and Romanticism are not only intellectual movements, but are also great examples of counterculture in history before the 20th century. Of course these two movements are dramatically different than more modern countercultural movements in their methods used to portray an idea, but they are still important to the history of counterculture.
+The above methods of expressing countercultural points of view are mainly from the mid to late 20th century, but counterculture can be identified for far longer than this throughout history. Both the Enlightenment and Romanticism were not only intellectual movements, but are also great examples of counterculture in history before the 20th century. Of course these two movements are dramatically different than more modern countercultural movements in their methods used to portray an idea, but they are still important to the history of counterculture.
 <br><br>
 ===The Enlightenment===
-One of the most significant intellectual movements, and countercultural movements, of history is the Enlightenment. Enlightenment thinkers, mostly white males, institutionalized many intellectual values leaving lasting impacts even on todays society. As a counterculture, the Enlightenment formalized rationalism and made liberty a "social contract", as Ken Goffman and Dan Joy write in their book ''Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house'' <ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. Prior to the Enlightenment, European countries were ruled by only a few aristocrats who believed they had the power to do what they wanted with the world, which according to them was given to them by God. The Enlightenment challenged these ideas and within 100 years, leaders of the time were allowing others to discuss and spread whatever new ideas they wanted to<ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. By the end of the Enlightenment works and writings with controversial ideas were no longer being as heavily banned by governments and institutions in comparison to the time before the Enlightenment and at the beginning of the movement.
+One of the most significant intellectual movements, and countercultural movements, of history is the Enlightenment. Enlightenment thinkers, mostly white males, institutionalized many intellectual values leaving lasting impacts even on today's society. As a counterculture, the Enlightenment formalized rationalism and made liberty a "social contract", as Ken Goffman and Dan Joy write in their book ''Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house'' <ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. Prior to the Enlightenment, European countries were ruled by only a few aristocrats who believed they had the power to do what they wanted with the world, which according to them was given to them by God. The Enlightenment challenged these ideas and within 100 years, leaders of the time were allowing others to discuss and spread whatever new ideas they wanted to<ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. By the end of the Enlightenment works and writings with controversial ideas were no longer being as heavily banned by governments and institutions in comparison to the time before the Enlightenment and at the beginning of the movement.
 <br><br>
 The Enlightenment brought many new philosophical viewpoints including those of René Descartes, who proposed that reason could help people to understand the physical world. This kind of idea was revolutionary for the time and completely unlike previous medieval ideas<ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. Another philosopher, John Locke, went directly against the absolute monarchies of the time and stated that a government based on consent and majority ruling was the best way to govern a civil society<ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. Arguably, the most important intellectual from the enlightenment was Francis Bacon, who is credited with the creation of the philosophy of modern science and technology. His ideas were completely opposite of medieval points of view, which stated that God, angels, and Satan are constantly interfering in the real world<ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. Also according to medieval ideas, there is no way to change the world to increase human happiness because it is not possible to change God's plan<ref name="counterculture"> Goffman, K., & Joy, D. (2006). Counterculture through the ages: from Abraham to acid house. New York: Villard.</ref>. Bacon completely disagreed with this concept and argued that the way to true knowledge is to study the complexities of the natural world.
 <br><br>
-In general, the freethinking of the enlightenment makes it a counterculture to the long medieval ages that came before it. Enlightenment thinkers publicly emphasized their opposition to religious philosophies of the past through their writings and statements of their new ideas. Eventually, like most countercultures, the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers became accepted among the majority of society.
+In general, the freethinking of the Enlightenment makes it a counterculture to the long medieval ages that came before it. Enlightenment thinkers publicly emphasized their opposition to religious philosophies of the past through their writings and statements of their new ideas. Eventually, like many countercultures, the ideas of Enlightenment thinkers became accepted among the majority of society.
 <br><br>
@@ Line 79: / Line 79: @@
 Shortly after the beginning of the French Revolution, the Romanticism movement among intellectuals from both Europe and America took off as a counterculture against the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment challenged medieval kings, the church, class structure, and many other aspects of the previous society while romantics were extremely opposed to modern rationalism, which was a main product of the enlightenment.
 <br><br>
-The Romantic Period was a time of serious changes, where violent revolutions were taking place in both Europe and America. Poets like William Blake and  William Wordsworth felt that they were "chosen" to help people through this changing and confusing time<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>. At the beginning of the Romantic period, Romantic poets in general were supporters of the French Revolution but changed their minds as the Reign of Terror came into reality. Romantic poets emphasized the idea that the imagination could help people overcome their troubles and Percy Bysshe Shelley even declared that poets "are the unacknowledged legislators of the world"<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>. Contrary to the Enlightenment, Romantic work was deeply rooted in the individual rather than focused on society as a whole, and Romantics praised youth and innocence as being authoritative rather than those with age and experience. Romantics also believed that children held a special place in the world because of their innocent perspective<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>. In the writings of romantics they encouraged people to explore new places and made the world seem like it had unlimited opportunities for all.
+The Romantic Period was a time of serious changes, where violent revolutions were taking place in both Europe and America. Poets like William Blake and  William Wordsworth felt that they were "chosen" to help people through this changing and confusing time<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>. At the beginning of the Romantic period, Romantic poets in general were supporters of the French Revolution but changed their minds as the Reign of Terror came into reality. Romantic poets emphasized the idea that the imagination could help people overcome their troubles and Percy Bysshe Shelley even declared that poets "are the unacknowledged legislators of the world"<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>. Contrary to the Enlightenment, Romantic work was deeply rooted in the individual rather than focused on society as a whole, and Romantics praised youth and innocence as being authoritative rather than those with age and experience. Romantics also believed that children held a special place in the world because of their innocent perspective<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>. In their writings the Romantics encouraged people to explore new places and made the world seem like it had unlimited opportunities for all.
 <br><br>
-Specific oppositions against the Enlightenment were shown through the introduction of the Gothic novel. One of the most famous Romantic novelists was Ann Radcliffe, who's work focused on struggling middle-class women who desired to see new places and inspiring landscapes<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>. Mary Shelley's famous work ''Frankenstein'' displays aspects of the Romantic movement, like the idea that scientific discoveries are driven by imagination, which is a direct contrast to that of the Enlightenment<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>.
+Specific oppositions against the Enlightenment were shown through the introduction of the Gothic novel. One of the most famous Romantic novelists was Ann Radcliffe, whose work focused on struggling middle-class women who desired to see new places and inspiring landscapes<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>. Mary Shelley's famous work ''Frankenstein'' displays aspects of the Romantic movement, like the idea that scientific discoveries are driven by imagination, which is a direct contrast to that of the Enlightenment<ref name="romanticism">Forward, S. (2014, February 18). The Romantics. Retrieved June 09, 2017, from https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/the-romantics</ref>.
 <br><br>
@@ Line 90: / Line 90: @@
 [[File:CA Salt March Gandhi.jpg|300px|frameless|right|Gandhi during the salt march]]
 <br><br>
-Gandhi reasoned with the INC that acts of civil disobedience would only be effective if they were carried out by large numbers of people, so the INC spread to have branches of the congress in each district of British India<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. Civil disobedience was extremely popular with the Indian people and movements like the resistance campaign in 1917 and the anti-Rowlatt Bill satyagraha in 1919 were very successful<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. The anti-Rowlatt Bill or the Rowlatt Act was passed by the Imperial Legislative Council which extended the measures of preventative indefinite definition, incarceration without trial and judicial review. The first mass national nonviolent movement was called the Noncooperation movement and took place from 1920-1922. The NCM was a series of local protests and as a result the 1920s was focused on forming relationships between urban nationalists in India and the smaller rural communities<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. These newly formed connections improved rural participation in mass protest and civil disobedience in the 1930s. The most amazing movement made by the INC was the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) from 1930-1934. This movement began with the salt March, which was a 240 mile walk where Gandhi was arrested for public display of salt making<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. Salt making was illegal in India because special taxes were imposed on imported salt by the British East India Company in oder to allow them to keep control over the salt trade. This tax was publicly hated by the Indian public and as an act of Civil Disobedience people made their own salt or bought salt illegally. Gandhi's arrest launched massive acts of Civil Disobedience and within the first year of the CDM over 60,000 people had been arrested<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>.
+Gandhi reasoned with the INC that acts of civil disobedience would only be effective if they were carried out by large numbers of people, so the INC spread to have branches of the congress in each district of British India<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. Civil disobedience was extremely popular with the Indian people and movements like the resistance campaign in 1917 and the anti-Rowlatt Bill satyagraha in 1919 were very successful<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. The anti-Rowlatt Bill or the Rowlatt Act was passed by the Imperial Legislative Council which extended the measures of preventative indefinite detention and  incarceration without trial and judicial review. The first mass national nonviolent movement was called the Noncooperation Movement and took place from 1920-1922. The NCM was a series of local protests and as a result the 1920s was focused on forming relationships between urban nationalists in India and the smaller rural communities<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. These newly formed connections improved rural participation in mass protest and civil disobedience in the 1930s. The most successful movement made by the INC was the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) from 1930-1934. This movement began with the salt March, which was a 240 mile walk where Gandhi was arrested for public display of salt making<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>. Salt making was illegal in India because special taxes were imposed on imported salt by the British East India Company in order to allow them to keep control over the salt trade. This tax was publicly hated by the Indian public and as an act of Civil Disobedience people made their own salt or bought salt illegally. Gandhi's arrest launched massive acts of Civil Disobedience and within the first year of the CDM over 60,000 people had been arrested<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>.
 <br><br>
 By 1934 the CDM ended due to an increase in repression by the Government of India. The use of nonviolence during the CDM brought many local successes and showed the immense power of the opposition but noncooperation tactics did not directly pressure the British to leave India. Acts of Civil Disobedience led by Gandhi and the INC, left the INC in a good position to negotiate with the British empire<ref name="Indian Movement">Crist, J. T. (2013). Indian Independence Movement. The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social and Political Movements.</ref>.

@@ Line 62: / Line 62: @@
 ====Do it Yourself====
-"Do it Yourself" counterculture is all about stopping the consumption of the culture that was made for you and making your own culture. It is also a way to reject normal and accept ways of expressing oneself and developnew methods for self-expression <ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Fanzines, also known as "zines", became a popular form of expressing counterculture before websites became a medium of communication. The reason they became so popular is that they are not dependent on any kind of publisher, are not motivated by profit, and are not filtered through anything. They are not as regulated and monitored as many other similar digital mediums, making them attractive to people looking for a place to freely express themselves <ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Zines became so popular because they could be completely controlled by the person who created them. This helped to prevent misinterpretation, a problem that many countercultures have faces when dealing with mainstream media and press. Today, zines are not used much at all and the ones that are may never actually reach an audience.
+"Do it Yourself" counterculture is all about stopping the consumption of the culture that was made for you and making your own culture. It is also a way to reject normal and accepted ways of expressing oneself and develop new methods for self-expression <ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Fanzines, also known as "zines", became a popular form of expressing counterculture before websites became a medium of communication. The reason they became so popular is that they are not dependent on any kind of publisher, are not motivated by profit, and are not filtered through anything. They are not as regulated and monitored as many other similar digital media, making them attractive to people looking for a place to freely express themselves <ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Zines became so popular because they could be completely controlled by the person who created them. This helped to prevent misinterpretation, a problem that many countercultures have faced when dealing with mainstream media and press. Today, zines are not used much at all and the ones that are may never actually reach an audience.
 <br><br>

@@ Line 58: / Line 58: @@
 ====Underground Press====
 [[File:Oz21large.jpg|300px|left|Issue 21 of Oz Magazine, and underground magazine in London in the 1960s]]
-Underground Press in the UK began in October of 1966, when the first edition of the International Times was published. An article from the British Library writes, "The Underground Press didn't say what you thought, but it did somehow express what you felt" <ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. These publications aimed to express the growing counterculture of the 1960s in the UK where reporters wrote, with a very radical voice, about changing attitudes of young people. The underground press was given its name because it did not accept current, dominant cultural beliefs and when mainstream news carriers refused to sell the International Times, the writers and producers found young people to sell it to on the streets. Many of the underground papers were subject to police raids and were charged with obscenity and trying to corrupt public morals<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Even the layouts of the papers were hard to read and represented counterculture in a bold way.
+Underground Press in the UK began in October of 1966, when the first edition of the International Times was published. An article from the British Library writes, "The Underground Press didn't say what you thought, but it did somehow express what you felt" <ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. These publications aimed to express the growing counterculture of the 1960s in the UK where reporters wrote, with a very radical voice, about changing attitudes of young people. The underground press was given its name because it did not accept current, dominant cultural beliefs and when mainstream news carriers refused to sell the ''International Times'', the writers and producers found young people to sell it to on the streets. Many of the underground papers were subject to police raids and were charged with obscenity and trying to corrupt public morals<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. Even the layouts of the papers were hard to read, due to the business of the pages, and represented the counterculture of the time in a bold way.
 <br><br>

@@ Line 49: / Line 49: @@
 ====Living Demonstration====
-An example of living demonstration is squatting. This is where a person occupies an empty property without the owners permission or knowledge. To demonstrators, this method is both practical and symbolic because it gives a place for homeless people to live and also raises awareness to the issue of homelessness. The issue of homelessness in London has been controversial and taken seriously for a very long time. The development of the squatters movement, in the 1960s, relied on press coverage to get its message across, as do many living demonstration movements<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>.
+An example of living demonstration is squatting. This is where a person occupies an empty property without the owner's permission or knowledge. To demonstrators, this method is both practical and symbolic because it gives a place for homeless people to live and also raises awareness to the issue of homelessness. The issue of homelessness in London has been controversial and taken seriously for a very long time. The development of the squatters movement, in the 1960s, relied on press coverage to get its message across, as do many living demonstration movements<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>.
 <br><br>

@@ Line 37: / Line 37: @@
 ====Civil Disobedience====
-Historically, the people participating in peace movements have been split on the decision whether to take more radical approaches of protest, like civil disobedience, or less radical ones like demonstration. Civil disobedience, like demonstration, is a form of direct action, but it differs from demonstration because laws are broken in order to force an issue onto a political stage<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. People that agree with civil disobedience argue that small crimes, like the disruption of streets, are justified because they are protesting a much large crime or issue, like war or environmental damages. However, in the eyes of authorities, the breaking of a law is never okay and participants of civil disobedience are often treated as trespassers.
+Historically, the people participating in peace movements have been split on the decision whether to take more radical approaches of protest, like civil disobedience, or less radical ones like demonstration. Civil disobedience, like demonstration, is a form of direct action, but it differs from demonstration because laws are broken in order to force an issue onto a political stage<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. People that agree with civil disobedience argue that small crimes, like the disruption of streets, are justified because they are protesting a much larger crime or issue, like war or environmental damages. However, in the eyes of authorities, the breaking of a law is never okay and participants of civil disobedience are often treated as trespassers.
 <br><br>
-In England, the philosopher Bertrand Russell was an advocate for civil disobedience and participated in sit-ins as a founder of the Committee of 100<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. The Committee of 100 was organized to protest against the Vietnam War and Nuclear weapons. The Committee believed that personal risk and responsibility were vital to successful movements. A sit in uses disruptions to attract attention to the cause that is being protested against. During a sit in protestors will sit in an area and refuse to move until their wants are met or they are removed by the authorities<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. This method of protest was first used by Mahatma Gandhi and later adopted by others like Martin Luther King Jr. during the Civil Rights Movement.
+In England, the philosopher Bertrand Russell was an advocate for civil disobedience and participated in sit-ins as a founder of the Committee of 100<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. The Committee of 100 was organized to protest against the Vietnam War and nuclear weapons. The Committee believed that personal risk and responsibility were vital to successful movements. A sit-in uses disruptions to attract attention to their cause. During a sit-in protestors will sit in an area and refuse to move until their demands are met or they are removed by the authorities<ref name="British Lib">Counter Culture. (2006, September 22). Retrieved June 06, 2017, from http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/21cc/counterculture/counterintro.html</ref>. This method of protest was first used by Mahatma Gandhi and later adopted by others like Martin Luther King Jr. during the Civil Rights Movement.
 <br><br>
 Civil disobedience was also used by some of Bertrand Russell's Committee of 100 in the 1960s to find out and expose secret government information. Calling themselves the Spies for Peace, they supported people breaking into military bases and finding classified military information.

@@ Line 189: / Line 189: @@
 =References=
 [[Category:History Projects]]
 [[Category:2017]]