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Difference between revisions of "Two Treatises of Government"

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=Section 1: Background=
 
=Section 1: Background=
 
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==Background on John Locke==
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==Life In England During The Time Of John Locke==
 
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Research bibliography and his major works. May create another page for this and link it to this page.
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John Locke is an English philosopher who was born in England in the year, 1632. He initially studied medicine at University of Oxford, graduating with a degree in that field, but later joined Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, assisting him on business and political matters along with being his personal physician. John Locke was deeply influenced during his time with Cooper where he started to understand politics. He eventually take a stand against monarchy, believing that the government was for the benefit of the people.
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<ref>Schwoerer, L. (1990). Locke, Lockean Ideas, and the Glorious Revolution. Journal of the History of Ideas, 51(4), 531-548. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/2709645</ref><br />
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This was clearly not the case during his time. The kings of England, King Charles II and King James II, were abusive of their power, forcing their will on the citizens by passing laws that favored their religious views. These law caused the people of England, during Locke's time, unwanted suffering and misery over religious matters. As such, the people considered monarchy in England a from of tyranny where they believed monarchy stripped them of their freedom and demoted them to a form of slavery, a form where they were forced to obey the unjust king. The people of England considered their ruling government to fail at its obligations to the people and because of this they called for a new form of government that favored the people as a whole, not just a few. These thoughts eventually lead to the Glorious Revolution, which took place in 1688, in which the tyrannical monarchy of England was overthrown. Locke's philosophical view on politics in his work, the ''Two Treatises Of Government'', had a major influence on this movement where he tried to justify the fall of monarchy and a creation of a new from of government for the people.
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<ref>Schwoerer, L. (1990). Locke, Lockean Ideas, and the Glorious Revolution. Journal of the History of Ideas, 51(4), 531-548. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/2709645</ref>
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<ref>Giffin, F. (1967). John Locke and Religious Toleration. Journal of Church and State, 9(3), 378-390. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/23913736</ref>
 
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==What are Two Treatises of Government==
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==Evaluation Of Two Treatises of Government==
 
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John Locke wrote the two treatises of government in correspondence to the Glorious Revolution which took place in 1688. His intention for writing the treatises were to justify William the third's ascension to the throne. With John Locke being part of a radical group, far left of the political spectrum during those times, his two treatises of government tried to justify and preserve the hereditary succession of the monarchy. The treatises also tried to explain king Williams possession of authority as he ascended the throne.
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Locke's philosophy was deeply religious and deeply influenced by the events that unfolded during his life in England. As such, he tries to understand the essence of government and the reason for its existence in his work, the ''Two Treatises Of Government''. In ''Two Treatises Of Government'', Locke first looked at the state of nature to understand the origins of authority. Form there, he concluded that monarchy is not the right form of government, supporting his claim with a religious view. He ends the ''Two Treatises Of Government'' by  calling for a new form of government to replace monarchy, where the people have power within the ruling government to better protect their life, liberty and property. He also lays out the foundation for rebellion and formation of a new form of government when the immediate ruling government ceases to function for the benefit of the people.   
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<ref> Ashcraft, R. (1986). Revolutionary Politics and Locke's Two Treatises of Government. Princeton: Princeton University Press., pp. 572 </ref>
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<ref>Thomas, D. (1962). The Political Philosophy of John Locke. Philosophy, 37(141), 260. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/3748443</ref>
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<ref> Laslett, P. (1956). The English Revolution and Locke's 'Two Treatises of Government' The Cambridge Historical Journal, 12(1), 43. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/3021052</ref>
 
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<ref> Thomas, D. (1962). The Political Philosophy of John Locke. Philosophy, 37(141), 260. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/3748443</ref>
 
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Peter Laslett, however, suggests that this was the case. He denies the fact that Glorious Revolution influenced the writing of the treatises. According to Laslett, the treatises begin forming far before the revolution. It is speculated that the treatises started being written during the Exclusion Crisis, a crisis in an attempt to exclude Charles II’s brother James, a Roman Catholic, from succeeding to the throne, 10 years prior to the revolution.   
 
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<ref> Davies, H. A., & Baker, P. S. (n.d.). English literature. Retrieved May 28, 2017, from https://www.britannica.com/art/English-literature/The-Restoration#ref308400</ref>
 
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<ref> Thomas, D. (1962). The Political Philosophy of John Locke. Philosophy, 37(141), 260. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/3748443</ref>
 
 
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===Analysis of Two Treatises of Government===
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===State Of Nature===
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John Locke looks at humans in the state of nature in the second treatise of his work, the ''Two Treatises of Government''. He claims that all men are originally in a state of nature. In this state, Locke says that all men are perfectly free and perfectly equal without an overseeing government. In other words, Locke implies that people are only bounded by the law of nature where each person lives, acts, and uses his possessions as he sees fit without a common authority. The natural law, or the "Fundamental law of Nature," as Locke calls it, is the right to self-preservation. It states that each man is empowered to  do whatever is in his power to preserve himself in the state of nature.
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<ref>Goldwin, R. (1976). Locke's State of Nature in Political Society. The Western Political Quarterly, pp. 126-135. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/447588</ref>
 
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The two treatises of government consist two parts of what John Locke considers his whole work. The first treatise looks at Sir Robert Filmer’s Patriarcha which focuses on the natural power of the king. The second treatise looks at Locke's proposed solution to the political upheaval in England with possible solutions for a better government. The ideas presented in the treatises were so radical that Locke never claimed ownership his work while they were being published. It was only when he claimed it in his will that the true author of the treatises was truly known. 
 
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<ref> Thomas, D. (1962). The Political Philosophy of John Locke. Philosophy, 37(141), 260-262. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/3748443</ref><br />
 
 
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====The First Treatise====
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===State Of War===
 
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In the first treatise, John Locke argues that Filmer cannot be correct because his theory implies that every man is born a slave to the natural born kings. According to John Locke, "slavery is a vile and miserable an estate of man," which he states at the start of his first treatise. As Locke puts it, he believes in reason and in the ability of every man to virtuously govern himself according to God’s law. As such he is against the idea of patriarchalism.
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Locke then moves on to talk about differences between the state of nature and the state of war in chapter III if his Second Treatise. In the state of war, people exert unwelcome force on other people by interfering with their natural rights and freedom. According to Locke, a state of nature which at first is a condition of peace and mutual trust, quickly degenerates into a state of war when a crises or a disagreement arises between the people. This happens because there is no overseeing authority in the state of nature meaning each individual serves as a judge, jury and executioner of the natural law. This leads to force and violence, the only resolution since common law does not exist between the people.
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<ref>Rowen, H. (1956). A Second Thought on Locke's First Treatise. Journal of the History of Ideas, 17(1), 130-132. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2707691.</ref>
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<ref>Simmons, A. (1989). Locke's State of Nature. Political Theory, 17(3), 449-470. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/191226</ref>
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<ref> LOCKE, J., & Shapiro, I. (2003). Two Treatises of Government: And a Letter Concerning Toleration. Yale University Press., pp.1, 35</ref>
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<ref> SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy pp. 167-168. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13 </ref><br />
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Filmer says that the Biblical Adam, in his role as father, possessed unlimited power over his children and his authority passed down through the generations. Filmer also says that Adam's absolute authority came from his ownership of the world. Locke, however, dispels this notion arguing that the world was originally held in common. He says that God's grant to Adam covered only the land and brute animals, not human beings. As such, Locke says that Adam and his heir could not leverage this grant to enslave mankind. The law of nature forbids reducing one's fellows to a state of desperation, if one possesses a sufficient surplus to maintain oneself securely
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Property is a key subject Locke brings up in chapter V of the Second Treatise. In this chapter he links humans behavior of acquiring property to the state of war when humans are living in the state of nature. Locke begins this chapter by first stating that the earth is considered the property of all the people where the people can use it for their collective survival and benefits. Locke writes, "God gave the World to Men in Common, but he gave it to them for their benefits, and the greatest Conveniences of Life they were capable to draw form it."  Locke then considers the concept of individual property where individuals take possession of the things around them when in state of nature. He says, "Human nature is very much that of man as the property-acquiring animal in the state of nature." In other words, Locke is suggesting that humans tend to take possessions of things around them and call it their property. This, however, bring up the question of ownership. Locke defines ownership as labor preformed by a person. He writes, "Every man has a ''Property'' in his ''Person.'' This body has any Right to but himself. The ''Labour'' of his Body and the ''Work'' of his Hands, we may say, are properly his...For this ''Labour'' being the unquestionable Property of the Laborer." In other words, Locke says that a person owns his own body and all the labor preformed by that body. Labor then leads to the ownership of property that the labor relates to. Now, when another person adds his own physical labor, which is his own property, to a foreign object or material, then that object and any resulting products also become his property. But in a state of nature, there are no common laws to determine who owns what part of an object or fruits of collective labor since each person has his own idea on possession. This ultimately leads to the state of war over the conflict of possession where the resolution ends in violence and dominance of the fittest. 
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<ref> LOCKE, J., & Shapiro, I. (2003). Two Treatises of Government: And a Letter Concerning Toleration. Yale University Press., pp. 15-21, 45-48</ref>.
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<ref> Locke, J. (1988). Locke: Two Treatises of Government Student Edition (P. Peter Laslett, Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., pp. 101-103 </ref>
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<ref> SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy pp. 169-172. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13 </ref>
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Locke further argues that the divine right of kings may end up being the downfall of all governments. As he puts it, if Filmer is correct, then there should only be one rightful king in all the world, which being Adam's heir. This, however, will be impossible to discover, meaning that no government, under Filmer's principles, can require its members to obey the god appointed rulers. Locke, therefore, suggests that men are duty-bound to obey their present rulers instead.
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===Call For A Government===
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<ref> LOCKE, J., & Shapiro, I. (2003). Two Treatises of Government: And a Letter Concerning Toleration. Yale University Press., pp. 65, 81-91</ref>.
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Locke calls for a government to secure individuals property. As he puts it, the natural law dictates a right of private property, and it is to secure this right that government is established. Locke further explains this by relating it to the state of war. He call the state of nature "unstable" with no civil authority where people are in constant dispute over the ownership of their property. This prevents peaceful enjoyment of the fruits of their labor which are constantly threatened by others around them, causing war and conflict. As such, this is the key reason why Locke calls for a common government where common laws can resolve the conflicts without resorting to a state of war. Locke writes, "protection of property is the great and ''chief end'' of Men's uniting into a commonwealth."               
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<ref> SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy pp. 169-172. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13 </ref>
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Locke ends his first treatise stating that there is no evidence to support Filmer's hypothesis. Locke says that no king has ever claimed that his authority rested upon him being the heir of Adam as he compares the history in the bible against the world's history.
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===Locke's View Against Monarchy===
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<ref> LOCKE, J., & Shapiro, I. (2003). Two Treatises of Government: And a Letter Concerning Toleration. Yale University Press., pp. 85, 91</ref>.
 
 
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Locke believes that monarchy emerged as an early form of government to protect the people form being in a state of war. He believed that people considered monarchy, or a one man rule, to be the prime form of government as they moved into societies form the state of nature. The idea behind monarchy was to create laws form one person's perspective that everyone else obeyed, ultimately reducing everyone's individual views on subjects to one common view. Doing this would help create order among the population where common laws would help resolve conflicts in a more peaceful manner, compared to how they were resolved when in the state of nature with multiple individual's views.
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<ref> Simmons, A. (1993). THE LOCKEAN STATE OF NATURE. In On the Edge of Anarchy: Locke, Consent, and the Limits of Society (pp. 13-39). Princeton University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt7zv047.7 </ref>
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<ref>Flannery, K., & Marcus, J. (2012). The Nursery of Civilization. In The Creation of Inequality: How Our Prehistoric Ancestors Set the Stage for Monarchy, Slavery, and Empire (pp. 448-474). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Harvard University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt2jbvjr.24</ref>
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<ref>Flannery, K., & Marcus, J. (2012). The Land of the Scorpion King. In The Creation of Inequality: How Our Prehistoric Ancestors Set the Stage for Monarchy, Slavery, and Empire (pp. 394-421). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Harvard University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt2jbvjr.22</ref>
  
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Locke, further, goes on to say that monarchy became abusive in England over time where the kings, or the ruling individuals, thought they had the divine right of the kings, granted to them by God, to rule their people as they saw fit. Filmer, in his book called ''Patriarcha'' supported this notion by saying that every man is born a slave to the natural born kings. He justify's this claim by relating it to religion, saying that Biblical Adam, in his role as father, was granted unlimited power, by God, over his children and his authority passed down through the generations. In other words, Filmer basically said that the kings were Adam's heirs who held the ultimate power, granted to them by the God, over the residents of this world.
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<ref>SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy (pp. 166). New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13 </ref>
  
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====The Second Treatise====
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Locke opposed Filmer's notion, in the first treatise. He said that every man had the ability to virtuously govern himself according to God’s law where enslaving mankind, as he saw it, was "a vile and miserable an estate of man."  He believed that the world was originally held in common where God's grant to Adam covered only the land and brute animals, not human beings. In other words, he believed that God did not grant the kings the right to impose their rule on other people. Locke further supports his view by saying that if Filmer is correct on his theory of divine right of the kings, then there should only be one rightful king in all the world, which being Adam's heir. This, however, will be impossible to discover, meaning that no government, under Filmer's principles, can require its members to obey the God appointed rulers, including England.
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<ref>SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy (pp. 166). New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13 </ref>
 
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The second treatise focuses on civil aspects of the government. The treatise itself is divided up into a short preface followed by nineteen chapters. The main idea of this treatise focuses on making the point that the government is a deal between the people who are governed and the people doing the governing. The people who are governing have certain obligations to provide it's people with benefits while the people being governed have to bare certain responsibilities towards the government. It is then that the government can function as one political body with its people.
 
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<ref> LOCKE, J., & Shapiro, I. (2003). Two Treatises of Government: And a Letter Concerning Toleration. Yale University Press., pp. 142-143</ref>
 
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<ref> Theriault, S. A. (2009, October 01). John Locke and the Second Treatise on Government. Retrieved May 29, 2017, from http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/6/john-locke-and-the-second-treatise-on-government</ref>
 
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Locke also lays out his theories about power, governance, and reason in the second treatise. He explores the concept of humans state of nature saying that humans are inherently good by nature. They just need a little help from a governing arrangement to structure a common welfare for all the people involved.
 
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<ref> LOCKE, J., & Shapiro, I. (2003). Two Treatises of Government: And a Letter Concerning Toleration. Yale University Press., pp. 102-106</ref>
 
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John Locke began's the second treatise by defining the political power as the right to make laws for the protection and regulation of property. He says that the laws only work if they are accepted by the people and if they promote public good. Locke claims that all men are originally in a state of nature. In this state, Locke says the people are bounded by the laws of nature where each person lives, acts, and uses his possessions as he sees fit without an effective arching government. This creates a lawless community were people only benefit themselves. However, human, according to Locke, are supposed to protect the interests of each other as they are all equal children of god. At the same time, punish those who intend to harm another by compromising his life, liberty, or possessions.
 
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<ref> LOCKE, J., & Shapiro, I. (2003). Two Treatises of Government: And a Letter Concerning Toleration. Yale University Press., pp. 103-105</ref>
 
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<ref>Herbert, G. (1996). John Locke: Natural Rights and Natural Duties. Jahrbuch Für Recht Und Ethik / Annual Review of Law and Ethics, 4, 591-613. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/43593573</ref>
 
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<ref>Simmons, A. (1989). Locke's State of Nature. Political Theory, 17(3), 449-470. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/191226</ref>
 
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Locke then moves on to talk about differences between the state of nature and the state of war. In the state of war, people exert unwelcome force on other people by interfering with their natural rights and freedom. This is mostly done without common authority. Furthermore, there are two types of state of war: war in society and wars in nature. The difference between them lay in how they end. War in society ends when an act of force is over. This most likely happens when all conflicting parties decide to appeal for a common resolution that is overseen by a common authority. War in nature, however, only ends when the enemy offers complete surrender and agrees to repair damage that is done. Analyzing these facts, Locke claims that majority of the people enter society to avoid the state of wars.       
 
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<ref>Simmons, A. (1989). Locke's State of Nature. Political Theory, 17(3), 449-470. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/191226</ref>
 
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Property is another key subject Locke brings up in the second treatise. Locke first states that the earth is considered the property of all the people where the people can use it for their collective survival and benefits. Locke then considers the concept of individual property where individuals take possession of the things around them. This, however, bring up the question of ownership. Locke defines ownership as labor preformed by a person. He says that a person owns his own body and all the labor preformed by that body. Labor then leads to the ownership of property that the labor relates to. Now when another person adds his own physical labor, which is his own property, to a foreign object or material, then that object and any resulting products also become his property.
 
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<ref> Locke, J. (1988). Locke: Two Treatises of Government Student Edition (P. Peter Laslett, Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., pp. 101-103 </ref>
 
 
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===Better Government For The People===
 
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John Locke now moves onto defining the fundamentals of a government for the people. Locke points out two aspects of a government that are revolutionary: the idea of human rights and the idea of a branched government. The idea of human rights, Locke says, are the rights granted to human for being human. He says that these "natural rights" cannot be taking away or rightfully eliminated for anyone. The composition of these natural rights include three essential components: right of life, the right of liberty and the right of property. The right of life, according to Locke, guarantees each person effectively 'owns' himself. This in short frowns at the idea of enslaving others to one's will. The right of liberty insures individuals the right to do, more or less, what they want with their life. This, once again, frowns at the idea of enslaving someone to do something against their own will, assuming it does not break the societal laws of effecting someone else negatively. The last right, the right of property, ensures that a persons work is only theirs for the benefiting.   
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Locke now moves onto defining the fundamentals of a government for the people. Locke points out two aspects of a government that are revolutionary: the idea of human rights and the idea of a branched government. Human rights, Locke says, are the rights granted to human for being human. He says that these "natural rights" cannot be taken away or rightfully eliminated for anyone. The composition of these natural rights include three essential components: right of life, the right of liberty and the right of property. The right of life, according to Locke, guarantees each person effectively 'owns' himself. This in short frowns at the idea of enslaving others to one's will. The right of liberty insures individuals the right to do, more or less, what they want with their life. This, once again, frowns at the idea of enslaving someone to do something against their own will, assuming it does not break the societal laws of affecting someone else negatively. The last right, the right of property, ensures that a person's work is only theirs for the benefiting.   
 
<ref> Locke, J. (1988). Locke: Two Treatises of Government Student Edition (P. Peter Laslett, Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., pp. 283-288 </ref>
 
<ref> Locke, J. (1988). Locke: Two Treatises of Government Student Edition (P. Peter Laslett, Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., pp. 283-288 </ref>
 
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The idea of a branched government, according to Locke, is to limit the power of a government. This is done by keeping all the components within the government in check with one another. For this to happen, Locke calls for a government with strong legislature and an active executive who do not outstrip lawmakers in power. Locke also brings in the idea of having rule of the majority within a government. This will help limit the powers of individuals within the government.    
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The idea of a branched government, according to Locke, is to limit the power of a government. This is done by keeping all the components within the government in check with each other. For this to happen, Locke calls for a government with strong legislature and an active executive who do not outstrip lawmakers in power. Locke also brings in the idea of having rule of the majority within a government. This will help limit the powers of individuals within the government.  
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<ref> Locke, J. (1988). Locke: Two Treatises of Government Student Edition (P. Peter Laslett, Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., pp. 331 </ref>
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<ref> SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy pp. 176-181. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13 </ref>
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<ref> Faulkner, R. (2001). The First Liberal Democrat: Locke's Popular Government. The Review of Politics, 63(1), 5-8. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/1408377</ref>
 
 
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Lastly, Locke explains the idea of rebellion. When the government ceases to function correctly for the people, Locke encourages rebellion and revolution. He says that it is societies obligation to do so.
 
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<ref> Theriault, S. A. (2009, October 01). John Locke and the Second Treatise on Government. Retrieved May 29, 2017, from http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/6/john-locke-and-the-second-treatise-on-government</ref>
 
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===The Two Treatises Impacts on Europe===
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===Right Of Rebellion===
 
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John Locke had a profound impact on the the thirteen colonies and Europe. His two treatises of government influenced the French and American revolutions. The American revolution, in particular, was heavily influenced by the treatises as it justified the start of the revolution which opposed, what colonists considered, tyranny. Even after the revolution, Locke's treatises continued to influence the development of American government, particularly the U.S. constitution.
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Lastly, Locke explains the idea of rebellion. When the ruling government ceases to function correctly for its people, it is then that Locke encourages a rebellion or a revolution. He says that it is society's obligation to do so to prevent tyranny or slavery from taking hold in societies.
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<ref> Theriault, S. A. (2009, October 01). John Locke and the Second Treatise on Government. Retrieved May 29, 2017, from http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/6/john-locke-and-the-second-treatise-on-government</ref>   
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<ref>SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy pp. 183. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13</ref>
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<ref> Powell, J. (1996, August 01). John Locke: Natural Rights to Life, Liberty, and Property | Jim Powell. Retrieved May 31, 2017, from https://fee.org/articles/john-locke-natural-rights-to-life-liberty-and-property/</ref>
 
 
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====American Revolution====
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=Section 2: Deliverable=
 
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American Revolution started taking shape after the Seven Years' War. The Seven Years' War was a dispute over ownership of the land in the new world. The war ultimately ended with Britain annexing a good deal of French territories in the new worlds, but it came at a high cost putting Britain in great debt. To pay off this debt, Britain started taxing the colonies without representation. Britain justified the taxing by saying that the colonists should help repay the debt because most of the war efforts were used to protect them. This made the colonists mad as they felt like they had no say in this matter which forced to obey the new unjustly laws.   
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In this section, I will explain how John Locke and his ''Two Treatises Of Government'' influenced America. I will first explain how the American Revolution was influenced  by Locke followed by how the government of America was influenced by him. I will then explain how slavery compared to Locke's political views and then I will end this section explaining how Locke's political views are seen today.   
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<ref> French and Indian War/Seven Years’ War, 1754–63. (n.d.). Retrieved June 01, 2017, from https://history.state.gov/milestones/1750-1775/french-indian-war </ref>
 
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<ref> American Revolution History. (2009). Retrieved June 01, 2017, from http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/american-revolution-history</ref>
 
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<ref> Stamp Act. (2009). Retrieved June 01, 2017, from http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/stamp-act#</ref>
 
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=====Key Events That Helped Cause the Revolution=====
 
 
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======Stamp Act======
 
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The first tax put on the colonies to raise revenue was the Stamp Act. This act imposed a tax on all paper documents in the colonies which weren't taxed before. The colonist felt   
 
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as though this tax was unconstitutional and that it would ultimately lead to the death of journalism as they knew it. The colonist rebelled against this tax with violent mobs that would intimidate stamp collectors into resigning.
 
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<ref> Stamp Act. (2009). Retrieved June 01, 2017, from http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/stamp-act#</ref>
 
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<ref>RAMSBEY, T. (1987). THE SONS OF LIBERTY: THE EARLY INTER-COLONIAL ORGANIZATION. International Review of Modern Sociology, 17(2), 313-335. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/41420902</ref>
 
  
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==Locke's Influence On The American Revolution==
 
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The influence from John Locke's political philosophy can be seen in the events that lead up to the revolution. Colonists considered their liberty and their natural rights to be violated by the British government as they passed their acts to raise revenue after the Seven Years' War. The first act, the Stamp Act, was put in place to tax all paper documents within the colonies without the representation of the American colonies. Britain justified this act saying that the colonists were obligated to help repay the debt incurred during the Seven Years' War because most of the war efforts were used to protect them. The colonists did not see it this way. They believed this act was unconstitutional and that it would ultimately lead to the death of journalism as they knew it in the colonies. Furthermore, the colonists felt like they had no say on this political matter that impacted them because they had no representation regarding this act. They saw this as a form of tyranny where they were forced to obey the new unjustly laws enforced on them by Britain where it benefited the British government but not its people, the colonists.
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<ref>RAMSBEY, T. (1987). THE SONS OF LIBERTY: THE EARLY INTER-COLONIAL ORGANIZATION. International Review of Modern Sociology, 17(2), 313-335. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/41420902</ref>
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======Declaratory Act======
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This was clearly a form of rule that Locke would oppose. First of all, Locke was against the idea of tyranny which is outlined in the ''Two Treatises Of Government'' explained above. As he saw it, tyranny emerges when the government stops benefiting its people. This is exactly what the Stamp Act did where it benefited the British government but not the colonists as it would ultimately lead to the death of journalism in the colonies. Locke, in this case, would call for a rebellion against this injustice and it is exactly what the colonists did. The colonist rebelled against this act with violent mobs that would intimidate stamp collectors into resigning. Their intentions were to have the British government repeal the unjust Stamp Act. Britain complied with the colonists request of repealing the Stamp Act, but they imposed other acts in its place, such as the Declaratory Act, the Quartering Act, Townshend Acts and Tea Act. These acts continued to raise revenue for the British government along with further restricting the colonist's freedom. <ref>RAMSBEY, T. (1987). THE SONS OF LIBERTY: THE EARLY INTER-COLONIAL ORGANIZATION. International Review of Modern Sociology, 17(2), 313-335. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/41420902</ref> At this point, the colonists felt like they were slaves who were forced to serve a foreign tyrannical government who stripped them for their liberty and their freedom. Furthermore, the colonists had no representation in their ruling government meaning that this government was not for the people. As such, the colonists called for a revolution, the American Revolution, to overthrow tyrannical British rule over the colonies and form their own government that would benefit its people. This, once again, is clearly what Locke outlined in the ''Two Treatises Of Government'' where he says that the government is for the benefit of the people and if it is not, then it should be overthrown through a revolution.                 
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After the stamp act was repealed by Britain, they imposed a new act called the Declaratory Act. This act gave British government unconditional power to pass any laws over the colonists that it saw fit. Furthermore, this act also repealed laws passed by colonists dictating that, laws passed in colonies will have no effect.  
 
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<ref> Stamp Act. (2009). Retrieved June 01, 2017, from http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/stamp-act#</ref>
 
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======Quartering Act======
 
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The Quartering Act was passed by British parliament which forced colonists to house and supply British troops. This act was considered intolerable by the colonists because they saw it as an intrusion on their freedom and property. Once again, as before, the colonists rebelled against this act through protests and boycotts.
 
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<ref> Gerlach, D. (1966). A Note on the Quartering Act of 1774. The New England Quarterly, 39(1), 80-88. doi:10.2307/363643 </ref>
 
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<ref> Quartering Act. Retrieved June 1, 2017, from https://www.britannica.com/event/Quartering-Act</ref>
 
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======Townshend Acts and Tea Act======
 
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Townshend Acts and Tea Act were both considered tariffs. They taxed colonial imported goods such as glass, lead, paints, paper and tea. The Townshend Acts, in particular, also allowed British officials to search houses and seize items without a warrant as a counter to smuggling. These acts were considered outrageous by the colonists. They said that these acts displayed the abuse of power given to Britain.
 
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<ref> Townshend Acts. Retrieved June 1, 2017, from https://www.britannica.com/event/Townshend-Acts</ref>
 
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<ref> Tea Act. (2009). Retrieved June 01, 2017, from http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/tea-act</ref>
 
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<ref> Townshend Acts. (2009). Retrieved June 01, 2017, from http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/townshend-acts</ref>
 
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All of these acts were considered intolerable by the colonists. They said that these acts striped their liberty and were slowly forcing them into submission. At this point, the colonists considered the British government to be a tyranny. To protest, the colonists started banding together and rebelling against the British government in key events such as the Boston Massacre and the Boston Tea Party. British government, in response, tried to keep its enforcement on the colonies by passing more acts, such as the Coercive Acts. Eventually, the colonists considered Britain to be a foreign power that should not be tolerated any further.
 
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<ref> American Revolution History. (2009). Retrieved June 01, 2017, from http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/american-revolution-history</ref>
 
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On July 4, 1776, the colonies banded together and officially declared their Independence to Britain. The colonists fought Britain for next seven years, eventually reaching a conclusion in 1783 with the help of France. Britain officially recognized the colonies independence after the signing of Treaty of Paris that year.
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==Locke's Influence The American Government== 
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<ref> American Revolution History. (2009). Retrieved June 01, 2017, from http://www.history.com/topics/american-revolution/american-revolution-history</ref>
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Locke's influence can also be seen in the creation of the American government. The American government was formed after winning the American revolution. The main goal of this government was to serve it people, which was Locke's central theory in ''Two Treatises Of Government''. To achieve this, the founding fathers created the Constitution. The constitution itself had bill of rights that insured life, liberty and property to its people. Locke's political influence can be clearly in the creation of this document. The main reason Locke believed individuals joined societies was to protect their property without resorting to the state of war as outlined above. This document precisely did that along with protecting individuals liberty. <br />
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Furthermore, Locke's influence can also be seen in the structure of the American government. The American government consist of three main branches outlined in the constitution: the legislative branch, which makes the laws, the executive branch, which extricates the laws, and the judicial branch, which insures that the laws are valid for the people. The idea behind having these three branches are to prevent tyranny from taking hold of the government. This is done by providing each branch with checks and balances over the other branches. These checks and balances will restrict the branches form gaining too much power in the government, ultimately reducing the chances of a tyrannical government from emerging.        
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Colonies, now free from Britain, banded together to form the new nation of United States followed by a new democratic government. The founding fathers created the constitution to insure the citizens liberty. The constitution itself holds the bill of rights which are the center piece of the new democratic government. The government itself has three major branches: the legislative branch, the executive branch, and the judicial branch. The key idea for this type of government is to enforce checks and balances between the branches so the government itself does not stray from benefiting the public and protecting their rights.       
 
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<ref> Foundations of American Government. Retrieved June 01, 2017, from ushistory.org</ref>
 
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<ref>SCHRAM, S. (2005). United States of America. In NERENBERG K. (Author) & GRIFFITHS A. (Ed.), Handbook of Federal Countries, 2005 (pp. 372-391). McGill-Queen's University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt809gp.31</ref>
 
 
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=Section 2: Deliverable=
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==Locke's Influence On Slavery In America==
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==Two Treatises Influence On The American Revolution==
 
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The influence from the treatises can be seen in the events that lead up to the revolution. Colonists considered their liberty and their natural rights to be violated by the British government as they passed their acts to raise revenue. The first act, Stamp Act, after the Seven Years' War was put in place without representation of the colonies. This made the colonists feel separated from the ruling government. They felt like they had no say in the matters that were being enforced on them. At his point, the colonists were starting to see the British government as a tyranny. The colonists wanted a government for the people. A government were its people had a say, but the British government was doing expect opposite.
 
 
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Revision as of 15:20, 19 June 2017

Two Treatises of Government

by Milap Patel

Two Treatises of Government
[[File: |x450px|alt=Milestone Image]]


Abstract



Introduction




Section 1: Background


Life In England During The Time Of John Locke


John Locke is an English philosopher who was born in England in the year, 1632. He initially studied medicine at University of Oxford, graduating with a degree in that field, but later joined Anthony Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, assisting him on business and political matters along with being his personal physician. John Locke was deeply influenced during his time with Cooper where he started to understand politics. He eventually take a stand against monarchy, believing that the government was for the benefit of the people. [1]

This was clearly not the case during his time. The kings of England, King Charles II and King James II, were abusive of their power, forcing their will on the citizens by passing laws that favored their religious views. These law caused the people of England, during Locke's time, unwanted suffering and misery over religious matters. As such, the people considered monarchy in England a from of tyranny where they believed monarchy stripped them of their freedom and demoted them to a form of slavery, a form where they were forced to obey the unjust king. The people of England considered their ruling government to fail at its obligations to the people and because of this they called for a new form of government that favored the people as a whole, not just a few. These thoughts eventually lead to the Glorious Revolution, which took place in 1688, in which the tyrannical monarchy of England was overthrown. Locke's philosophical view on politics in his work, the Two Treatises Of Government, had a major influence on this movement where he tried to justify the fall of monarchy and a creation of a new from of government for the people. [2] [3]

Evaluation Of Two Treatises of Government


Locke's philosophy was deeply religious and deeply influenced by the events that unfolded during his life in England. As such, he tries to understand the essence of government and the reason for its existence in his work, the Two Treatises Of Government. In Two Treatises Of Government, Locke first looked at the state of nature to understand the origins of authority. Form there, he concluded that monarchy is not the right form of government, supporting his claim with a religious view. He ends the Two Treatises Of Government by calling for a new form of government to replace monarchy, where the people have power within the ruling government to better protect their life, liberty and property. He also lays out the foundation for rebellion and formation of a new form of government when the immediate ruling government ceases to function for the benefit of the people. [4]

State Of Nature


John Locke looks at humans in the state of nature in the second treatise of his work, the Two Treatises of Government. He claims that all men are originally in a state of nature. In this state, Locke says that all men are perfectly free and perfectly equal without an overseeing government. In other words, Locke implies that people are only bounded by the law of nature where each person lives, acts, and uses his possessions as he sees fit without a common authority. The natural law, or the "Fundamental law of Nature," as Locke calls it, is the right to self-preservation. It states that each man is empowered to do whatever is in his power to preserve himself in the state of nature. [5]

State Of War


Locke then moves on to talk about differences between the state of nature and the state of war in chapter III if his Second Treatise. In the state of war, people exert unwelcome force on other people by interfering with their natural rights and freedom. According to Locke, a state of nature which at first is a condition of peace and mutual trust, quickly degenerates into a state of war when a crises or a disagreement arises between the people. This happens because there is no overseeing authority in the state of nature meaning each individual serves as a judge, jury and executioner of the natural law. This leads to force and violence, the only resolution since common law does not exist between the people. [6] [7]

Property is a key subject Locke brings up in chapter V of the Second Treatise. In this chapter he links humans behavior of acquiring property to the state of war when humans are living in the state of nature. Locke begins this chapter by first stating that the earth is considered the property of all the people where the people can use it for their collective survival and benefits. Locke writes, "God gave the World to Men in Common, but he gave it to them for their benefits, and the greatest Conveniences of Life they were capable to draw form it." Locke then considers the concept of individual property where individuals take possession of the things around them when in state of nature. He says, "Human nature is very much that of man as the property-acquiring animal in the state of nature." In other words, Locke is suggesting that humans tend to take possessions of things around them and call it their property. This, however, bring up the question of ownership. Locke defines ownership as labor preformed by a person. He writes, "Every man has a Property in his Person. This body has any Right to but himself. The Labour of his Body and the Work of his Hands, we may say, are properly his...For this Labour being the unquestionable Property of the Laborer." In other words, Locke says that a person owns his own body and all the labor preformed by that body. Labor then leads to the ownership of property that the labor relates to. Now, when another person adds his own physical labor, which is his own property, to a foreign object or material, then that object and any resulting products also become his property. But in a state of nature, there are no common laws to determine who owns what part of an object or fruits of collective labor since each person has his own idea on possession. This ultimately leads to the state of war over the conflict of possession where the resolution ends in violence and dominance of the fittest. [8] [9]

Call For A Government


Locke calls for a government to secure individuals property. As he puts it, the natural law dictates a right of private property, and it is to secure this right that government is established. Locke further explains this by relating it to the state of war. He call the state of nature "unstable" with no civil authority where people are in constant dispute over the ownership of their property. This prevents peaceful enjoyment of the fruits of their labor which are constantly threatened by others around them, causing war and conflict. As such, this is the key reason why Locke calls for a common government where common laws can resolve the conflicts without resorting to a state of war. Locke writes, "protection of property is the great and chief end of Men's uniting into a commonwealth." [10]

Locke's View Against Monarchy


Locke believes that monarchy emerged as an early form of government to protect the people form being in a state of war. He believed that people considered monarchy, or a one man rule, to be the prime form of government as they moved into societies form the state of nature. The idea behind monarchy was to create laws form one person's perspective that everyone else obeyed, ultimately reducing everyone's individual views on subjects to one common view. Doing this would help create order among the population where common laws would help resolve conflicts in a more peaceful manner, compared to how they were resolved when in the state of nature with multiple individual's views. [11] [12] [13]

Locke, further, goes on to say that monarchy became abusive in England over time where the kings, or the ruling individuals, thought they had the divine right of the kings, granted to them by God, to rule their people as they saw fit. Filmer, in his book called Patriarcha supported this notion by saying that every man is born a slave to the natural born kings. He justify's this claim by relating it to religion, saying that Biblical Adam, in his role as father, was granted unlimited power, by God, over his children and his authority passed down through the generations. In other words, Filmer basically said that the kings were Adam's heirs who held the ultimate power, granted to them by the God, over the residents of this world. [14]

Locke opposed Filmer's notion, in the first treatise. He said that every man had the ability to virtuously govern himself according to God’s law where enslaving mankind, as he saw it, was "a vile and miserable an estate of man." He believed that the world was originally held in common where God's grant to Adam covered only the land and brute animals, not human beings. In other words, he believed that God did not grant the kings the right to impose their rule on other people. Locke further supports his view by saying that if Filmer is correct on his theory of divine right of the kings, then there should only be one rightful king in all the world, which being Adam's heir. This, however, will be impossible to discover, meaning that no government, under Filmer's principles, can require its members to obey the God appointed rulers, including England. [15]

Better Government For The People


Locke now moves onto defining the fundamentals of a government for the people. Locke points out two aspects of a government that are revolutionary: the idea of human rights and the idea of a branched government. Human rights, Locke says, are the rights granted to human for being human. He says that these "natural rights" cannot be taken away or rightfully eliminated for anyone. The composition of these natural rights include three essential components: right of life, the right of liberty and the right of property. The right of life, according to Locke, guarantees each person effectively 'owns' himself. This in short frowns at the idea of enslaving others to one's will. The right of liberty insures individuals the right to do, more or less, what they want with their life. This, once again, frowns at the idea of enslaving someone to do something against their own will, assuming it does not break the societal laws of affecting someone else negatively. The last right, the right of property, ensures that a person's work is only theirs for the benefiting. [16]
The idea of a branched government, according to Locke, is to limit the power of a government. This is done by keeping all the components within the government in check with each other. For this to happen, Locke calls for a government with strong legislature and an active executive who do not outstrip lawmakers in power. Locke also brings in the idea of having rule of the majority within a government. This will help limit the powers of individuals within the government. [17]

Right Of Rebellion


Lastly, Locke explains the idea of rebellion. When the ruling government ceases to function correctly for its people, it is then that Locke encourages a rebellion or a revolution. He says that it is society's obligation to do so to prevent tyranny or slavery from taking hold in societies. [18]

Section 2: Deliverable


In this section, I will explain how John Locke and his Two Treatises Of Government influenced America. I will first explain how the American Revolution was influenced by Locke followed by how the government of America was influenced by him. I will then explain how slavery compared to Locke's political views and then I will end this section explaining how Locke's political views are seen today.

Locke's Influence On The American Revolution


The influence from John Locke's political philosophy can be seen in the events that lead up to the revolution. Colonists considered their liberty and their natural rights to be violated by the British government as they passed their acts to raise revenue after the Seven Years' War. The first act, the Stamp Act, was put in place to tax all paper documents within the colonies without the representation of the American colonies. Britain justified this act saying that the colonists were obligated to help repay the debt incurred during the Seven Years' War because most of the war efforts were used to protect them. The colonists did not see it this way. They believed this act was unconstitutional and that it would ultimately lead to the death of journalism as they knew it in the colonies. Furthermore, the colonists felt like they had no say on this political matter that impacted them because they had no representation regarding this act. They saw this as a form of tyranny where they were forced to obey the new unjustly laws enforced on them by Britain where it benefited the British government but not its people, the colonists. [19]

This was clearly a form of rule that Locke would oppose. First of all, Locke was against the idea of tyranny which is outlined in the Two Treatises Of Government explained above. As he saw it, tyranny emerges when the government stops benefiting its people. This is exactly what the Stamp Act did where it benefited the British government but not the colonists as it would ultimately lead to the death of journalism in the colonies. Locke, in this case, would call for a rebellion against this injustice and it is exactly what the colonists did. The colonist rebelled against this act with violent mobs that would intimidate stamp collectors into resigning. Their intentions were to have the British government repeal the unjust Stamp Act. Britain complied with the colonists request of repealing the Stamp Act, but they imposed other acts in its place, such as the Declaratory Act, the Quartering Act, Townshend Acts and Tea Act. These acts continued to raise revenue for the British government along with further restricting the colonist's freedom. [20] At this point, the colonists felt like they were slaves who were forced to serve a foreign tyrannical government who stripped them for their liberty and their freedom. Furthermore, the colonists had no representation in their ruling government meaning that this government was not for the people. As such, the colonists called for a revolution, the American Revolution, to overthrow tyrannical British rule over the colonies and form their own government that would benefit its people. This, once again, is clearly what Locke outlined in the Two Treatises Of Government where he says that the government is for the benefit of the people and if it is not, then it should be overthrown through a revolution.

Locke's Influence The American Government

Locke's influence can also be seen in the creation of the American government. The American government was formed after winning the American revolution. The main goal of this government was to serve it people, which was Locke's central theory in Two Treatises Of Government. To achieve this, the founding fathers created the Constitution. The constitution itself had bill of rights that insured life, liberty and property to its people. Locke's political influence can be clearly in the creation of this document. The main reason Locke believed individuals joined societies was to protect their property without resorting to the state of war as outlined above. This document precisely did that along with protecting individuals liberty.
Furthermore, Locke's influence can also be seen in the structure of the American government. The American government consist of three main branches outlined in the constitution: the legislative branch, which makes the laws, the executive branch, which extricates the laws, and the judicial branch, which insures that the laws are valid for the people. The idea behind having these three branches are to prevent tyranny from taking hold of the government. This is done by providing each branch with checks and balances over the other branches. These checks and balances will restrict the branches form gaining too much power in the government, ultimately reducing the chances of a tyrannical government from emerging.

Locke's Influence On Slavery In America



How Is Locke's Political Philosophy Seen In Modern Societies



Conclusion




References


  1. ↑ Schwoerer, L. (1990). Locke, Lockean Ideas, and the Glorious Revolution. Journal of the History of Ideas, 51(4), 531-548. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/2709645
  2. ↑ Schwoerer, L. (1990). Locke, Lockean Ideas, and the Glorious Revolution. Journal of the History of Ideas, 51(4), 531-548. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/2709645
  3. ↑ Giffin, F. (1967). John Locke and Religious Toleration. Journal of Church and State, 9(3), 378-390. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/23913736
  4. ↑ Thomas, D. (1962). The Political Philosophy of John Locke. Philosophy, 37(141), 260. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/3748443
  5. ↑ Goldwin, R. (1976). Locke's State of Nature in Political Society. The Western Political Quarterly, pp. 126-135. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/447588
  6. ↑ Simmons, A. (1989). Locke's State of Nature. Political Theory, 17(3), 449-470. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/191226
  7. ↑ SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy pp. 167-168. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13
  8. ↑ Locke, J. (1988). Locke: Two Treatises of Government Student Edition (P. Peter Laslett, Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., pp. 101-103
  9. ↑ SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy pp. 169-172. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13
  10. ↑ SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy pp. 169-172. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13
  11. ↑ Simmons, A. (1993). THE LOCKEAN STATE OF NATURE. In On the Edge of Anarchy: Locke, Consent, and the Limits of Society (pp. 13-39). Princeton University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt7zv047.7
  12. ↑ Flannery, K., & Marcus, J. (2012). The Nursery of Civilization. In The Creation of Inequality: How Our Prehistoric Ancestors Set the Stage for Monarchy, Slavery, and Empire (pp. 448-474). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Harvard University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt2jbvjr.24
  13. ↑ Flannery, K., & Marcus, J. (2012). The Land of the Scorpion King. In The Creation of Inequality: How Our Prehistoric Ancestors Set the Stage for Monarchy, Slavery, and Empire (pp. 394-421). Cambridge, Massachusetts; London, England: Harvard University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt2jbvjr.22
  14. ↑ SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy (pp. 166). New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13
  15. ↑ SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy (pp. 166). New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13
  16. ↑ Locke, J. (1988). Locke: Two Treatises of Government Student Edition (P. Peter Laslett, Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press., pp. 283-288
  17. ↑ SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy pp. 176-181. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13
  18. ↑ SMITH, S. (2012). Locke and the Art of Constitutional Government. In Political Philosophy pp. 183. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/j.ctt32bv21.13
  19. ↑ RAMSBEY, T. (1987). THE SONS OF LIBERTY: THE EARLY INTER-COLONIAL ORGANIZATION. International Review of Modern Sociology, 17(2), 313-335. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/41420902
  20. ↑ RAMSBEY, T. (1987). THE SONS OF LIBERTY: THE EARLY INTER-COLONIAL ORGANIZATION. International Review of Modern Sociology, 17(2), 313-335. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.wpi.edu/stable/41420902



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